!^B 


1 


^EGA  TIVE 

91^80441-11 


MICROFILMED  1992 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES/NEW  YORK 


ik «% 


as  part  of  the 
ndations  of  Western  Civilization  Preservation  Project" 


Funded  by  the 

^MENT  FOR  THE  HUMANITIES 


Reproductions  may  not  be  made  without  permission  from 

Columbia  University  Library 


COPYRIGHT  STATEMENT 

The  copyright  law  of  the  United  States  -  Title  17,  United 
States  Code  -  concerns  the  making  of  photocopies  or  other 
reproductions  of  copyrighted  material . .  P  «^  or  ocner 

i^n.^M  t'-^'^^J'"^^^^ '"  Its  judgement,  fulfillment  of  the  order 


ive  violation  of  the  copyright  law. 


AUTHOR: 


TITI 


PLAC 


"^      '^^°    ''W 


•—If 


DAI 


MIL 


™ 


^    IS 

I  •    r 

THA 


I  A 


y^^ 


k-^         » 


-.#■     # 


•  ETIQUETT 
LATE  .... 


% 


i3 


ASTER,  PA 


# 


14 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

^iSI^I^SRAPHICMICROFORMTARGE 


Original  Material  '^^FiliWTi;^!;!^^;^^ 


Mastc^r  Negative  # 


B7h 
M612 


Miller,  Anna  Bertha,  1874- 
Koinan  etiquette  of  the  late  repuhlic  as  revealed  by  the  .or 

i  a.,  I  less  of  the  New  era  prmtin^r  vompimy,  1D14. 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


j^Itom,^Soc,Ilfe  &  cust.  ^ Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius.        i.  Title. 

rLu.""^  n' *^''°P"^  DG78.M6  15-1311 

Lnlv.  of  Pennsylvania  r.jbr. 


i38bl 


TECHNICAL  MICROFORM  DATA 


^ 


FILM     SIZE-        ^  ^-W--v\r> 

IMAGE  PLACEMENf:W^-m    flB       "'^''""'O^     RATIO:__^-0_f  >■ 

DA  IF     FILMED:  ^^A'/?^       tmitia.o        <r- r" 

HLMED BY:   BmMCHEiEj^riJSi^mMK&- 


c 


Association  for  information  and  Image  IManagement 

1100  Wayne  Avenue,  Suite  1100 
Silver  Spring,  Maryland  20910 

301/587-8202 


Centimeter 

1         2        3 

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllliul 


4 

iiiili 


liiiiiliiiiliiii 


6         7        8 

iiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliii 


Inches 


1.0 


II 


I.I 


1.25 


1.4 


10 

iiiiliii 


■o 

1= 

2.5 

y. 

Ih 

1^ 

2.2 

163 

■  36 

Ul 

II^H 

us 

|i£ 

2.0 

u. 

^  u 

tkkb, 

1.8 

1.6 


11 

lilm 


12       13       14       15    mm 

iliiiiliiiili|||||i|| 


l¥^i 


•^•Q 


MfiNUFfiCTURED   TO   PIIM   STRNDflRDS 
BY   fiPPLIED   IMfiGE.     INC. 


ROMAN  ETIQUETTE  OF 

THE  LATE  REPUBLIC  AS  REVEALED  BY 

THE  CORRESPONDENCE 

OF  CICERO 


"V* 


BY 


ANNA  BERTHA  MILLER 


THESIS 

Presented  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School 

OF  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  Partial 

Fulfilment  of  the  Requirements  for 

the  Degree  of  Doctor 

of  Philosophy 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  COMPANY 

LANCASTER,  PA. 

1914 


1.-.      '  - '    » 

1  7JtdJkii^^«^f^::S» 


*b 


:.::4l 


*b7^ 


M^ 


loiiiiifiua  clmbcrs^ttp 


^^^ 


-\ 


iit    I  •  j  4 


LfBRARY 


M  i  -':  ^  '^^1 


J 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below,  or  at  the 
expiration  of  a  definite  period  after  the  date  of  borrowing, 
as  provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Library  or  by  special  ar- 
rangement with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 


DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

I2N0V  '42 

b 

20!/ii\)'% 

t 

\ 

CtB(aS»)MIOO 

ROMAN  ETIQUETTE  OF 

THE  LATE  REPUBLIC  AS  REVEALED  BY 

THE  CORRESPONDENCE 

OF  CICERO 


BY 

ANNA  BERTHA  MILLER 


4 

i 

i 

I 
1 


THESIS 

Presenteq  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School 
OF  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in   Pjhial 

Fulfilment  of  trf  "Rfqt^irfmfn't^  for 
THE  f  h.iiKE  OF  Doctor 


) . , 


Ui      i    H  11,-5  »:-'  il'ii  \ 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  CC^F^NY 

LANCASTER,  PA, 

1914 


;» 


I 


il^ 


I't' 


I 


*  I 


I 


i 


I 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Im.liography 

i  \    RODUCTION 1 

<"fIAPTER   I 
ReCOG  VTTTOV    OF   SOCIAT.    U  \\  K 4 

Influence  of:  birth,  oilirial  position,  age,  occupation, 
sex. 

<  'll  \riii:    1  I 

Soci  \ i    Functions  \ xd  1  )i  ties 24 

A.    lo'L^ard  fi^r  n]aiiM(T<  aial  dress. 

I>.    Imi!' rtainriH'iit  (•!'  iriU'^i^:  \i>it-,  dinners,  calls. 

C.   Attt'iuinii    to    {)er-niia{    event>:  birth,    marriage, 

death. 

(    HAl'TF.K    III 
Cu-Mi'I.IMF.\T>    AND    FaVU11> 45 

A.  Pohte  hmgna^e. 

B.  rnsoHcited  courtesies. 
(.'.    Requests. 

Chapter  IV 

Lp:tter-writixg 53 

A.  Occasions:  congratuhition,  apology,  thanks,  con- 
dolence, introduction. 

B.  Form  and  style:  handwriting  and  materials,  titles 
and  names,  greeting,  close,  language. 

(\  Confidential  nature  of  correspondence. 

iii 


I 


V^*.r--f 


iv 

■        (^IlAPTKU    \' 

LiTEUAKY  Work  .  .  .  .' 71 

A.  Personal  dedicatinn  and  allii-U'iis. 

B.  Sul)niis>i()n  of  inanu-cripT-. 
C   Prest'iitatioii  ('n[)ies. 

1).  l*iil)li«'  rtu'oirnitinn  «'f  auilnT-. 

Cil  WTi'Al    ^7 

PuBT.ir  (iATiii.!;ivn^     75 

A.  KtHpu  Uc  lur  ^piakti_^  uidtr  and  privilege  in  the 
xnatt  .  trrntirifnt  hv  niidience,  use  of  personal 
ailu-itMis. 

B.  iupLilar  drinniist rations:  at  the  theatre,  on  the 

streot,  p-<cov\ ,  U'luinphs. 
CON<  1.1  >i  >N 83 


f 


»• 


lUliLKKniAPHY 


^M]»'r(■    n(=    ;HiTliMf    i^-   .'lltd    III    ;!    fnotlK^tf   tllC   pUSSagC    \^    frOlll 

CicTTO,    and    ihr    following    <ii»t»rt  \  iaiajit-    arc    U:^fd    fur    the 

l\pi-iies: 

/.       ad  familiares.     Att.  =  ad  Aiucum.     tr.  ^   Hii  (hufifuni 

fratrem. 

Abbott,  1     F.,  Society  and  Politics  in  Ancient  Kuuit.     ^iUUU; 

Arnaud,  G.,  La  societie  romaine.     (1902) 

Babl,  Johann,  P    Epistularum  Latinarum  Formulis.     (1893) 

Bartoli,  Gli  antichi  sepolchri.     (1728) 

Becker,  W.  A.,  iiallus.     (Trans,  by  Metcalfe,  1895) 

Blair,  Wm.,  An  Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Slavery  amongst 

the  Romans.     (1833) 
Bliimner,   Hugo,    Die    romischen    Privataltert  uih  r.      v^Uii) 

Handbuch  von  Ivan  Miiller,  vol  TV.  2.2. 
Boissier,  Gaston,  Ciceron  et  ses  amis.  (1908) 
Conway,  R.  S.,  The  Singular  Use  of  iios.     Camb.  Phil  Traii:^., 

vol.  5,  pp.  7  ff. 
Dodge,  Louise,  Cicero  ad  Atticum.     A   T  P.,  vol.  22  ii     i 39  n\ 
Donaldson,  James,  Woman:   lit  :    Position  and    iniiiaiuH    m 

Ancient  Uieece  and  Rome.     (1907) 
Drumann.  ^V    Geschichte  Roms.     (1834) 
J    IF  :    ,   (juglielmo.  The  Greatness  and    Pecline  of    Pome. 

(Trans.  1908) 
Fowler,  W.  Warde,  Social  Life  at  Rome  in  the  Air*  *  f  r'« » ro. 

(1910) 
Priedliinder,  L.,  Koman  Life  and  -Manners  Uiidci   liic  Early 

Empire.     (Trans.  1909) 
C  nlitt    P     T'.Per  das  Fehlen  der  Briefdaten  in    In  cicero- 

nischen  i\n!  respondenzen.     Pnrsians  Jahresln  r.  der  klass. 

Altertumswiss.,  vol.  139,  pp.  32  ff. 

V 


VI 


Iim*  ,  W    il  .  Society  in  Rome  under  the  Caesars.     (1888) 
Kels('> ,  1     W  .  Cicero  as  a  Wit.     CI.  J.,  vol.  3,  pp.  3  ff. 
Marf|iKirtlT.   1  ,  D n^  Privatleben  der  Romer.     (1886) 
Miirill.  \'].    1   .  i^h  <  ertain  Roman  Characteristics.     CI.  Ph., 

\'ui.    1,  f>p.  oUl*  V'. 

Momm^rn,  Thrndf  r    History  of  Rome.     (Trans.  1905) 


Pa  lit' 


i-\Vi- 


.  (  )  w 


i ,   i  \ 


1  ncyclopiidie.     1894- 


Peast .  I'    M     1  iH   CreetinET  in  the  Letters  of  Cicero.     Studies 

iii  llniM,!  m!  Hi  ii  <,   dirsleeve.     (1902),  pp.  395  ff. 
Port*  rfitl«l,  <      \1      It       l(i  ^fh'cwm  Superscriptions.     CI.  R., 


"^.  n! 


J.  i-p.    ;:-:;. 


iVc^iuii  and  1  >uii^i;,  T.ic  in   .  b   Life  of  the  Romans.     (1893) 
Pitter.    }  r  .    Tf  l^rrtru  V^one  bciieu   der   Romer  vor  gewissen 

Au>(lru('krii  iihil   WMPt -^^•rlaIH]]lngen.     Rheinisches  Mu- 


seum   flir    I'liiini.  .^.r,    vol.   'V    Pp.    "'()9  ff. 


S<}i!n!tlt.  ().   L.,  Cicero  in   i     1*  rentia.     Xeue   Jahrbuch.  der 

kiass.  Altcrtuinswiss,  vC    I.  pp-  174  ff. 
Miiitli,  I>i(ti.aiar\     I  Circkand  Roman  Antiquities.     (Third 

rdil  loll ) 

SttH'lr,  \l.  1)  .  rh.  (irrrk  in  Tjcero's  Epistles.     A.  J.  P.,  vol. 

21.PP.  ;:s7iv. 

T\  rr(  11.  IL  v.,  liie  Correspondence  of  Cicero.     (1885) 


INTRODUCTION 


The  following  thesis  is  based  primarily  on  a  study  of  Cicero's 
correspondence,  with  a  view  to  discovering  what  society  in 
that  age  considered  the  proper  attitude  and  conduct  of  one 
individual  towards  another.  The  investigation  has  not  dealt 
with  the  moral  question  whether  a  man's  treatment  of  his 
fellow  was  just  or  unjust,  but  simply  with  what  the  social 
organization  accepted  as  the  customary  or  conventional  act 
under  given  circumstances.  We  are  concerned  wiiii  inaiiners, 
not  morals,  and  these  manners  may  seem  good  or  l^nd  nrrnvfVmg 
as  they  please  or  offend  our  own  taste,  but  they  are  equally 
important  in  establishing  a  code  of  etiquette  which  may  be 
said  to  belong  to  a  certain  age  of  society. 

The  purpose,  then,  of  this  paper  is  to  illustrntr  f]  -  iigh  a 
collation  of  passages  from  Cicero,  and  from  th<  r  writers  of 
that  period,  the  Roman  idea  of  etiquette  which  prevailed 
during  the  closing  years  of  the  Repid  li^  TIm  ii'vm  ttirpiotte 
is  used  in  its  broadest  sense,  to  include  not  only  courtesy  nial 
good  manners  but  liie  observance  oi  cuiiventiunal  piuprieties, 
whether  thev  be  loose  or  strict:  not  only  social  dntio-  nTid  \\\nr 
proper  form,  but  also  customs  whi(  h  fashion  illMwrd  even 
if  it  did  not  endorse  them.  The  letters  of  Cicero  give  <  !•  the 
impression  that  he  and  his  contemporaries  had  iCicate 
sense  of  appreciation  of  the  niceties  of  courtesy,  i  i  1  iliat 
while  their  standards  d.  i  •:  na  a  ure  up  to  wliat  iIm  t\  < m a  t fi 
vchiury   w(MJd    consider   r.a'rect,   liiere   did    exioi   a   certain 

ral 


} 


afiiHimt  ot  convein  aauii  <if<-uru]]\.  aiMi 
rc-ard  f"'-  ii   in  -n-c.dlrd  "  pnhir  -ntdety. 


I iM a*' '  ' a' 


la 


ss  geiif 


J) 


ill    tiii^    pre:5eiilalU)ii    ul    wiial    liie    wiiLcr 


-  f  !  S  1    , 


iionatu 

■ptjrin.-'t+r'd'  attriitioii   lin-  hcpv.   paid   to   -iirli    iatliaaa'p-  upon 

social  formalities  as  the  d  ihi*  la*    m  the  raidv  <  f  indixaiuaC, 

vii 


M 


^sm 


Vlll 


wlii.  ti  iiia\  iia\  e  been  due  to  their  birth,  official  position,  age, 

X.     Under  the  head  of  social  functions  and 


Si?"      <  t 


occupatioi!, 

ilutu  -  ar*  trt  ats  u  Hie  customs  which  belong  to  the  entertain- 
nu  fit  (I  LTiir  I  ,  and  to  the  recognition  of  such  occasions  as 
hirtit,  inarriafi^e,  or  death.  Further  opportunity  to  study  the 
Miafiiu  r-  <  f  t!ir  Romans  appears  in  their  use  of  compliments 
and  ra\nr  ,  ii  t-tir  habits  of  letter-writing,  and  in  their 
litt  rarv  w  rk    whiic  ihvir  ijehavior  at  public  gatherings  is  also 

IH-.tt'd. 

Nfi    t  finiplrtr  description  of  the  customs  which  illustrate 

the  priiicipk^  uf  uiiqucLLt;  uiidt  r  discussion  is  presented  here, 
and  the  reader  i-^  mfrrrpd  ff-r  luihT  information  to  the  second- 
ar\    aiida  ritH-  (itti       i  !<•  only  exhaustive  series  of  refer- 


eiict.'"^  ( tilt ■!■('( 


)  ^  i 


fail    c;  1 1  if '< ! 


!•(  !n  Cicero's  letters,  which  furnish 

a  fural  of  malt  lial  '  i  Uiu  ^^ludy  of  any  social  problem  in  his 
am  ;  hut   the  in  .  t'stigation  has  also  included  other  works  of 

the  oratnr,  and  ff  anthnr-  w  h^  were  contemporaneous  with 
him  or  hitt-r  wrotr  alH^ai  u.i-  prrifui,  such  as  Nepos,  Catullus, 
liorarta  ()\-i<h  !j\\.  .hivenaL  and  t].*-.  n^TT-lc  writer,  Plutarch. 

Cicero"-  air*'  i-  di-t i nci ix  «•  in  thai  it  was  one  of  transition. 
Tcuitt'  bucit'i\  laid  uLii^Tuuii  die  rudeness  of  Cato  the  Censor 
and  it>  other  r u-tie  anee^tors.  The  culture  and  polish  of 
*'  eit\'  Wir  "  had  <m  aia-  i  >  hr  p>i  .kt-n  i  .f  as  superior  to  the  uncouth 
-turtiino^-^  isf  fiHifn!-;,  h'-r-Jin^.  hen  Republican  equality, 
which  -till  exi-nMJ  iu  rxn-rtiai  i^vui  at  i.-ast,  stamped  the  social 
worhl  with  a  nnirk  *  f  .han-MTacy  and  freedom,  which  later 
(h>a}tpeart  d  nrah  r  ik  linence  of  an  imperial  court.  In 
mattt  r-  <>i  .>(>eni!  nn  rcuiiin>e,  liierefore,  the  age  of  Cicero 
mark-  a  -ra::a  hiaw  ♦■*•?.  f]ir  -'mplicity  of  the  early  Republic 
and  the  elahnrata  I'Mrnnahty  of  ih-  Iniipire. 

Ciceru'^  pta'-auicd  iiu-  aiai  ihaL  oi  iiis  associates  may  well 
funii-h  II-  with  t  pieal  in  nitrations  of  the  proper  conduct  in 
fa>hiona})h^  eirrh'-  at  i  •!.'  rjn^..  ..t  rh*'  Ic-piiMic;  for  the  famous 
orator,  thomil:  la-t  of  ari-iueratir  !)iriii,  laid  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  pohtii-ai  and  -..rial  di^tint  t ion.     His  friends  represented 


J^ 


IX 

the  wealth  and  nobility  of  Rome,  and  whatever  his  own  success 
or  failure  in  politics,  he  was  always  a  prominent  figure  socially, 
whether  at  his  city  home,  or  in  semi-retirement  at  one  of  his 
villas.  No  one,  moreover,  could  have  been  more  strictly 
conventional  than  Cicero.  Public  opinion  was  at  once  the 
guiding  influence  and  chief  dread  of  his  existence.  Wo  need 
have  no  fear  that  his  manners  created  comment  by  their 
impropriety,  or  shocked  his  associates  by  their  originality,  as 
did  those  of  his  contemporary,  Cato.  Whatever  people 
approved,  Cicero  must  do;  for  he  could  ill  endure  public 
censure,  as  we  shall  often  see.  We  feel,  then,  that  he  is  a  safe 
guide  through  the  social  world  in  which  he  ii\  ed,  and  liiat  what 
was  accepted  by  him  and  his  associates  may  well  illn-trate 
for  us  the  code  of  Roman  etiquette  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
Republic. 


CHAPTER  I 


RECOGNITION  OF  SOCIAL  RANK 

In  any  social  organization  distinction  of  rank  is  apt  to  be 
a  dominant  factor,  and  would,  of  course,  have  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  subject  of  etiquette.  Thus  even  in  Repub- 
lican Rome  we  find  that  a  man's  treatment  of  his  associates 
was  more  or  less  influenced  by  their  birth,  official  position, 
age,  ability,  occupation,  or  sex.  "Woman's  Sphere,"  for 
example,  is  no  more  an  idea  of  modern  invention  than  many 
another  social  problem  with  w^hich  Cicero  and  his  contempo- 
raries were  familiar.  But  it  is  important  to  remember  in  this 
connection  that  w^e  have  to  do  here  not  with  the  rights  and 
privileges  of^different  classes  of  society,  but  only  with  customs 
observed  in  the  exercise  of  these  rights. 

A.   Influence  of  Birth 

The  Roman  Republic  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  special 
privileges  for  those  of  noble  births  Only  after  long  struggles 
did  the  patricians  share  their  rights  with  the  plebeians,  and  the 
nobles  admit  the  equites  to  their  exclusive  senatorial  body. 
Rome  had,  therefore,  an  aristocracy  of  birth.  To  what  extent 
did  this  establish  social  barriers  in  Cicero's  age?  The  great 
orator  himself  w^as  a  novus  homo,  who  had  risen  to  the  first  posi- 
tion of  honor  politically  and  socially.  He  therefore  might 
naturally  feel,  or  affect,  as  he  sometimes  did,  a  scorn  for  noble 
birth^.  But  there  is  evidence  that  his  coniemporaries  (ii  i 
recognize  it  as  a  very  real  distinction.  Thus  Atticus  used  t . . 
compliment  his  aristocratic  friends  by  presenting  them  with 

»  Momm.  History  of  Rome,  I,  337  flf.  — 
I  In  Verr.  2,  5,  180. 


copies  of  their  family  trees ^  An  instance  is  Brutus,  who 
coukl  m  this  way  trace  his  ancestry  to  the  hero  who  expelled 
the  last  of  file  Tarquins^. 

Xiuong  those  at  Brundisium  Caesar  particularized  certain 
*'\uuiig  men  of  senatorial  families"^  and  it  was  of  them,  too, 
thfit  Pnmpey  said,  "such  important  people"  should  be 
resent  I  (,)iiijitus  Metellus  put  forth  his  family  rank  as  his 
^liifi!  ;  r  respect  ^  and  even  Cicero  did  not  fail  to  speak  of 
i>  li'^Mili  a<  n  ^'youth  of  noble  birth"8.  He  also  taunted 
I'aetu-  ujifi  f.  ring  many  plebeian  ancestors  whom  he  might 
well 


« I l:-rr_;;{  r< 


ousrh  he  admitted  that  he  also  had  some 
fKitriciaii  uhL'.-.  uiiuot  busts  he  should  keep^  We  cannot  fail 
<  itlinr  to  notr  tho  tone  of  respect  with  which  the  orator  writes 


L,At 


I:*  iF 


ilS  owi 


1  aullus  of  the  "  splendid  position  of  his  family  "^o. 

it T   mess  at  the  opposition  of  the  aristocrats, 

1   !  Iiim  was  not  confined  to  political  matters", 

'   indignant  that  he  now  possessed  the  Tusculan 

i  tulonged  to  the  noble  Catulus^-. 

i  fi<    *  \!  tcnce  of  slavery  is  always  a  striking  recognition  of 

♦^''■^ '"*'•' '     '1  'irth.     .V  Tiome,  however,  the  slaves,  who  were 

V  !  ra]>tives,  d'ul  not  necessarily  belong  to  a  race  inferior 

tu  Liiat  of  their  masters^^  and  indeed  they  were 

sometimes  their  superiors  in  natural  ability  or 

■^5  ^  1  i    n'   n      And  so  the  intelligent  Greeks  who  delighted 

Cittiu  hj   ilitii  care  and  arrangement  of  his  library^'*,  who 


(<\ii 


Slaves. 


8  Att.  7,  8,  3. 

»F.  9,  21,3. 

i°F.  15,  12.     Cf.  Plin.  Ep.  I,  14. 

"F.  1,  9,  5. 


»AtL  13.40.  1;  Nep.  Att.  18. 

*  Phil.  2.  26. 

'Caes.  B.C.I,  23. 

«  Atl.  8.  12*,  2. 

'F.  5,  1,  1. 

"  Att.  4,  5,  2.  Ferrero  (Greatness  and  Decline  of  Rome,  II:  136  ff.)  thinks  an 
important  factor  in  breaking  down  class  distinctions  at  this  time  was  the  dem- 
ocratic influence  of  the  schools  where  the  sons  of  freedman  and  senator  sat  side 
by  side  according  to  Horace  (Sat.  I:  6,  71  S.)  We  may  object  to  this  instance 
as  exceptional,  but  even  so,  it  is  significant,  and  perhaps  all  the  more  so  on 
that  account. 

"  Att.  5,  20,  5.  u  Att.  4,  8\  2. 


1 


assisted  Atticus  in  his  studies^^,  or  who  took  charge  of  their 
master's  financial  affairs^^,  did  not  hold  the  position  of 
menials. 

Accordingly,  there  was  no  impropriety  in  Cicero's  caring  for 
Tiro's  education  by  personal  instruction^^,  nor  in  his  ever 
watchful  attention  to  his  talented  slave's  comfort  and  happi- 
ness^^. He  frankly  acknowledged  his  dependence  upon  Tiro 
in  his  literary  work^^,  and  he  expressed  his  appreciation  of  his 
many  services  as  carefully  as  if  he  were  addressing  an  associate 
of  equal  rank^^.  When  separated  from  him  Cicero  WTote 
frequent  letters-^  upon  one  occasion  three  on  the  same  day^^. 
This  correspondence  reveals  a  personal  attachment^,  a 
deferential  respect  for  his  judgment^^,  and  the  fact  that 
Cicero's  friends  also  expressed  their  regard  for  the  cultured 
slave^.  There  is  no  reference  to  their  relationship  of  master 
and  slave,  nor  anything  to  suggest  that  these  were  not  letters 
to  some  intimate  friend.  The  orator  even  jokes  in  a  familiar 
way  about  Xiro's  washing  to  have  his  own  letters  included  in 
a  published  correspondence^^. 

This  attitude  toward  a  favorite  slave  cannot  have  been 
exceptional  in  Cicero,  who  spoke  of  Atticus'  private  secretary, 
Alexis,  as  the  image  of  his  own  Tiro^^,  frequently  sent  messages 
to  him  when  writing  to  his  master^^,  and  complained  of  not 
receiving  letters  from  him  as  Atticus  did  in  the  case  of  Tiro^^. 
More  light  however  is  thrown  on  the  latter's  position  in  the 
family  by  the  correspondence  between  him  and  the  orator's 
son,  at  the  time  when  he  was  a  student  at  Athens.  This 
shows  quite  plainly  the  boy's  affectionate  comradeship  with 
Tiro,  the  slave-friend  of  his  home  life^°,  and  also  his  recognition 


15  Att.  5,  12,  2. 
"F.  16,  3.  1. 
»»  F.  16.  10,  2. 
"  F.  16,  4,  3. 
«  F.  16,  24,  1. 
«  F.  16,  6,  1. 
«  F.  16,  1,  3. 
"F.  16,  1,  1. 


"^«.  15,  15,  3;  15,  17,  2. 

J8  F.  16,  9,  2;  16,  17,  2;  Att.  9,  17,  2;  F.  16,  4,  1-2. 

»F.  16,  4,  4:  16.  5   1 

«  F.  16,  17,  1. 

"  Att.  12,  10. 

"  Att.  7,  7,  7. 

"^«.  5,  20,  9;  6,  7,  2. 

"  F.  16,  21,  1-2. 


^ 


of  the  fact  that  he  might  gain  his  father's  ear  through  this 
i^fl  lential  private  secretary^^ 

C  )i!  the  other  hand,  to  plead  the  cause  of  slaves  was  scarcely 

a  iL-ptjLtabit  iiicLiiod  of  attracting  attention  in  the  courts^^ 
Mnrpnyrr  ih^  c]hphy  of  great  grief  by  Atticus  at  the  death 
!  f  lis  Atliainas  called  forth  a  rebuke  from  Cicero^^  who,  when 
^ii-  <'V  li  Khj.r  Sositheus  died,  said  he  was  more  deeply 
alu(  tr  I  Th  I  i  i  iM  hniild  be  by  the  death  of  a  slave^.  And  so, 
J!i-t  as  an  earlier  age  had  shown  a  Cato  who  worked,  ate,  and 
drafik  uiih  his  se^vants^^  but  at  the  same  time  a  Piso  whose 
blu\  t  liaitd  liuL  :>peak  until  first  spoken  to^^  similarly  at  this 
tini'  nUn.  it  i-^  probable  that  propriety  left  much  to  the  indi- 
^^i^hiiil  III  n-iird  to  the  social  recognition  of  servants.  Sueto- 
1  ill-  It  •  '  tu  all  uid  custom"  by  which  they  daily  appeared 
bofort  rhi  if  ownrr  in  \xv<h  him  good-morning  and  good-night^^ 
Ihii  fliny  caii-d  attention  to  his  own  affection  and  care  for 
hi  I  a  -es^^  a:  I  to  the  leniency  of  his  neighbors  also^^  as  if  his 
timo  Hi  ark  I  a  t  i<re  of  advancement  in  this  respect;  Seneca, 
t"<  .  wn  r»  a  the  possibility  of  making  friends  of  slaves  by 
kind  T reatmenf*^. 

If  Th<  f  arnur^  lixed  by  birth  were  sometimes  broken  down  in 
rfL  ird  i<.  laves,  this  was  still  more  often  true  of  freedmen.  On 
the  occasion  of  Tiro's  manumission,  Quintus  Cicero  wrote  to  his 

biuther :  "  I  am  most  pleased  that  you  have  chosen 
to  make  him  our  friend  instead  of  our  slave  "'*^; 
and  he  trr atrd  Ids  own  freedman  Statins  as  an  intimate  com- 
rade ifai  a.lviser,  although  Cicero  disapproved^^^  reminding 
him  thai  dair  ancestors  controlled  their  freedmen  almost  as 
ai  .oiutely  as  their  slaves^.  Marcus,  indeed,  thought  it 
especially  improper  that  Statins  had  been  told  private  family 


Freedmen 


3^  AU.  15,  15,  4. 

32  F.  8,  9,  1. 

33  Att.  12,  10,  1. 
^  Att.  1,  12,  4. 
35Plut.  Cato  Mai.  3:  2. 


3«  Plut.  de  Garrul.  18;  cf.  Sen  .Ep.  47,  3-4.    "  Fr.  1,  1,  13. 
37  Galba,  4. 


^^Ep.  8,  16;  2,  17,  9. 

3»  Ep.  3,  19,  7. 

"  Ep.  47,  16-19. 

"  F.  16,  16,  1. 

«  Fr.  1,  2,  3;  cf.  Hor.  Epod.  4,  6. 


I 


! 


matters  which  "should  not  have  been  written  to  a  freedman"'*^. 
But  whatever  might  be  the  tradition  as  to  propriety,  in  actual 
practice  we  find  the  freedman  in  many  positions  of  respect 
and  confidence^^,  and  the  recipient  of  many  courtesies  from 
his  patron  and  others^. 

So  it  was  that  Glyco  secured  the  intercession  of  Brutus 
whose  freedman  was  Glyco's  brother-in-law^^.  Then  we  have 
the  case  of  Dionysius,  a  learned  Greek,  who  for  a  time 
was  entrusted  with  the  education  of  Cicero's  son  and  nephew'*^. 
The  orator  gave  him  generous  praise  for  his  teaching'^^,  he 
was  lenient  in  his  demands^^,  and  inclined  to  forgive  even  his 
discourtesy  and  insolence^^  Ex-slave  though  he  was,  Philo- 
timus,  Terentia's  steward,  not  only  managed  her  business  (and 
for  a  time  Cicero's)  according  to  his  own  devices^^,  but  also 
influenced  his  patroness  so  strongly  that  he  was  probably  re- 
sponsible for  the  domestic  troubles  which  ended  in  Cicero's 
divorce^.  Pompey,  too,  as  we  learn  from  the  open  comment 
of  his  contejnporaries,  was  much  swayed  by  his  secretary, 
Theophanes^. 

Outside  the  home  of  his  patron^^,  with  whom  his  relations 
after  manumission  were  not  essentially  different,  the  freed- 
man was  now  recognized  as  a  social  factor.  He  might  become 
a  land  or  slave  owner  himself,  and  this  financial  independence 


"  Att.  7,  26,  3. 

"^«.  7,  7,  1;  7,  8,  1. 

"^«.  5,  8,  2-3;  5,  19,  1;  6,  9,  2. 

63  F.  4,  14,  3. 

^*  Att.  5,  11,  3. 


**  Att.  6,  2,  2. 

«  F.  5,  20,  1-2;  Att.  8,  11^,  fin. 

*^Att.  7,  4,  1;  5,  9,  3. 

<7  ad  Brut.  1,  6,  2. 

«  Att.  4,  15,  10;  4,  18,  5. 

*^  Att.  4,  11.  2;  7,  18,  3. 

"  The  terms  "client"  and  "patron"  by  the  end  of  the  Republic  were  used 
chiefly  of  freedmen  and  their  former  owners,  though  sometimes  of  political  or 
social  hangers-on  without  much  distinction  as  to  social  rank.  (Hor.  Epist.  1,  7, 
46  flf.)  Somewhat  later  literary  men  became  the  "clients"  of  wealthy  or  in- 
fluential "patrons",  as  Horace  of  Maecenas;  and  the  relationship  was  con- 
sidered entirely  honorable  (Mart.  1,  107,  Juv.  7,  62),  though  by  Martial's  time 
the  literary  client,  like  others,  was  hardly  more  than  a  poor  beggar  who  re- 
ceived alms  from  a  rich  patron.  Cf.  Mart.  12,  18,  13  ff.;  10,  74.  For  discus- 
sion, see  Marq.  Pr.  202  S. 


very  often  gave  him  the  advantage  of  meeting  his  fellow- 
citizens  on  equal  terms^.  Freedmen's  importance  in  the 
pr-'tir;,]  world  gained  them  admittance  to  even  such  a  com- 
pany as  that  which  gathered  at  the  home  of  Cicero  to  talk 
over  public  matters^^.  The  orator  did  not  hesitate  to  ask  his 
friends  to  defend  men  of  this  social  status  in  the  courts^^,  nor 
did  he  fail  to  acknowledge  his  own  indebtedness  to  the  ex- 
slaves  of  Appius  Claudius  who  were  largely  responsible  for 
his  friendly  intercourse  with  their  patron^^.  The  extra- 
ordinary advancement  of  freedmen  during  the  empire^°  was 
furthermore  forestalled  by  Caesar  when  he  showed  special 
favor  to  his  former  slave,  Licinus,  the  Gaul,  who  became  the 
governor  of  his  native  province^^  and  had  a  marble  monument 
still  standing  on  the  Via  Salaria  in  Juvenal's  day^-. 

It  was  only  a  step  farther  for  the  freedman  to  make  his 
appearance  at  social  functions.  Statins,  after  his  manumis- 
sion by  Quintus  Cicero,  preceded  the  latter  in  his  return  from 
Asia  Minor  in  order  that  he  might  make  his  debut  among  the 
people  whom  he  would  now  meet  at  the  home  of  his  patron's 
distinguished  brother.  To  be  sure  he  made  a  bad  impression, 
but  this  seems  to  have  been  due  to  his  own  personality^. 
Tiro  offers  us  another  instance.  While  being  entertained  in 
the  home  of  Cicero's  friend,  a  Greek  banker  at  Patrae,  he 
wrote  that  he  attended  an  evening  concert  given  by  his  host, 
because  he  feared  his  absence  would  seem  discourteous^. 
There  is  moreover  some  evidence  that  Cicero  dined  with  a 
rich  freedman  at  Rome^,  though  he  slurred  Antony  for  his 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  one^.  Even  in  the  age  of 
Cicero,  therefore,  we  see  the  possibility  of  what  happened  a  few 
years  later,  when  the  talented  poet  Horace,  the  son  of  a  man 
born  in  slavery,  formed  one  of  a  small  coterie  of  friends 


wF.  16,21,7;  Att.  8,  10,  1. 

"  F.  10,  25,  3. 

"  F.  13,  14,  2. 

"F,  2, 13,2.     Cf.F.3, 1,1. 

•0  Tac.  Hist.  II:  95.     Juv.  14,  91. 

^Att.  16,  11,  1. 


"  Dio  54,  21,  3. 

"  Mayor  on  Juv.  1,  109. 

"  Fr.  1,  2,  1-2. 

"  F.  16,  9,  3. 

«  F.  9,  10,  2. 


gathered  about  the  aristocratic  and  exclusive  Maecenas^^ 
and  was  consequently  in  favor  with  the  Emperor.     Horace 
admits  that  Maecenas  met  with  criticism  from  popular  opin- 
ion, and  he  offers  the  defense  that  he  himself  was  freeborn«« 
\\hatever  social  discrimination  there  was  against  one  who 
had  been  a  slave,  in  the  field  of  literary  work  there  seems  to 
be  no  trace  of  it.     Cicero  recommended  Apollonius,  a  Greek 
freedman  of  Crassus,  as  a  suitable  historian  of  Caesar's  achieve- 
ments^^,  and  he  envied  Atticus  the  privilege  of  being  the  first 
to  read  his  Tyrranio's  new  book^«,  while  he  referred  even  to 
liro  s  writings  as  a  matter  of  some  consequence'^. 

Perhaps  never  in  the  history  of  any  city  has  the  feeling  of  its 
superiority  over  the  rest  of  the  world  been  so  marked  as  it  was 
in  Rome  during  the  last  century  of  the  Republic.     The  free- 
Foreigners    ^^'"^  ^'^^'^^  P'^^^^  th^  heritage  of  his  birth  above 
that  even  of  kings  and  princes  in  other  lands,  and 
so  he  frankly  assigned  all  foreigners  to  a  lower  rank  of  man- 
kmd  than  himself  and  might  speak  disparaginglv  of  them 
without  violating  the  rules  of  etiquette.     Cicero  lamented  the 
deterioration  of  the  native  Roman  stock  through  the  invasion 
hrst  of  Italian,  and  then  of  Transalpine  tribes^^     He  also 
referred  to  provincials  as  "rude  barbarian  folk"73      We  recall 
how  Caesar  outraged  propriety  by  bringing  to  the  senate 
Gauls  who  had  received  the  right  of  civitas,  but  who  were 
welcomed  at  the  capital  with  such  lampoons  as:  "Lately 
wearing  Gallic  breeches,  now  they  wear  the  purple  stripe  "^^ 
Cicero  frequently  denounced  the  whole  nation  of  "modern 
Greeks",  whom  he  considered  skilled  only  in  the  art  of  decep- 
tion^^     His  friend  Marius,  he  said,  so  despised  the  race  that 
he  ^^uld  not  travel  to  his  own  villa  by  the  Via  Graeca'\ 
Lucullus  preferred  not  to  write  the  Greek  language  too  well 


"Hor.  Sat.  1,  6,  45-48. 
"  Hor.  Sat.  1,  6,  7-8. 
"  F.  13,  16,  4. 
^°  AU.  12,  6,  2. 
''  F.  16,  18,  3. 


"'  F.  9,  15,  2. 

'^Fr.  1,  1,  9:27. 

'*  Suet.  Jvl.  80. 

''Fr.  1,  1,5:  16;  1,2,2:4. 

'«F.  7,  1,  3. 


Cf.  Juv.  10,  174. 


8 


lest  he  be  taken  for  a  native^^,  just  as  the  general  Marius  had 
boasted  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  literature  of  a  conquered 
people^^.  The  Egyptians  too  received  their  share  of  invec- 
tives^^. In  Antony's  association  with  Cleopatra,  his  fellow 
countrymen  found  most  humiliating  the  fact  that  he  had 
yielded  to  the  charms  of  an  Egyptian,  regardless,  as  has  been 
remarked,  of  the  fact  that  she  w^as  a  queen  and  the  descendant 
of  a  long  and  glorious  line^°.  And  so  there  were  in  this  age 
worthv  descendants  of  Cato  the  Censor  who  wished  even  such 
foreigners  as  H      k  philosophers  expelled  from  Rome^^ 

But  Greek  learning,  in  Cicero's  time,  had  come  to  be  ac- 
cepted in  the  abstract,  as  it  were,  and  as  distinct  from  the 
people  to  whom  it  belonged^'^.  We  find  also  some  friendly 
iiit  r, ourse  with  individual  foreigners^,  in  spite  of  a  hostile 
atrirud,    lowaiJ  their  race.     The  philosophers  Phaedrus  and 

riiilM  ina.jr  m:in\- 


acct ■!  •!    I ! iri r 


friends  at  Rome  even  among  those  who  did 
-inctrines^^.     Diodotus  lived  many  years  in 

(  Krr(.\  lidiin  a!  <i  liiiallv  dird  there,  admired  as  a  scholar  and 
as  a  I'rifiid^^.  Kmnnn^  wla*  n-a  .<ih'd  in  the  (oriental  provinces, 
acctpttti  tla    In  -pit alii     <  !  I •  ! *  iguers  there  and  formed  with 


tlifin  ti(;>  WMiYv  lanPin^-  than   those  of  siiapix-  "  crnest-friend- 

Shij)'"'*'.        Such    riaJI'trHf^    inU-t    t.f  r(>ur:>«J   \>v    Vr\\\r\\r^\    \\\\v\i   liiC 

ea>t('r!i  frit-iid-^  \i-itr(l  the  <  apital.  S(*  liir  -i>n  i.i'  \v\n- 
harzaiu'>.  who  canit'  a-  an  airiha--a< !•  a*  it .  (  'aesaia  '\  as  generally 
ft'tt'tl  hv  Uoiiiai!  -och-tx  '  ,  bccau-r  (.K'ciaj  aiiii  ijUkt  pri-'iuiiiL-iiL 
|HM)|)h'  wvvv  iiii(ha*  ohlisrntioii  t<'  the  jiriiK  r'<  of  rnpi'a.hH-an'^'^. 
Ill  40  B.  ('.  K(»i!ir  had  tor  the  fir-t  tiinr  a  InrriLi'Ha-  a-  o'ir  ol' 
its  C()n>iil>.  (\)r!i('hii-  iKilhii-  t.f  (ia(h'-''.  hut  fXt.'U  lliat  iiai  uul 
mark  tht*  end  (»f  tht"  -aoiHni:  at  one  who  wa-  >o  unfortunate^  as 
not  to  ha\e  ht'cn  hcuai  a  lioinan''. 

■'  Att.  1,  la.  in.  '8S:il!i^t  Jnj.  N,-,.  ni.  "»  Caes.  BeW.  AZcx.  3. 

^••-  luize,  Sr>ri.t<i  :u  li-ii',-  ,i>rl'  -  thr  Caesars.  p.  153. 

S'  Pint.  ('at:>  M,n.  ■2-2.  Pliny,  .V.  //.  7,   IIJ    11. n 

*-  Fr.  1,  1,  Js.  ^'  F.  l.n  la.  1.  n;    :>.  l;  in  Cat.  -\.  I  1,  23. 

*3  F.  lt>,  4.  _'.  8"  Mt.  l-i.  J.  J. 

^'  F.  i:p  1.  2.  8^  F.  ir>.  1.  7.   \    Afr  a.  i    .»;. 

»^  F.  Vi,  \>).  4;  .4//.  2,  20,  u.  -J  I),,,  4^.  n2.  Vhir:.  A.  //.  7,   l^-n 

^^  Drum.  (Jtschu-fd--  R->'ns,  H    :,\)\  fi. 


I 


t-'  ~t 


I 


< 


^   «     * 


'r 


B.  Influence  of  Official  Position 
Official  position  established  a  rank  among  the  Romans 
which  was  recognized  in  every  sphere  of  life.     A  passenger 
of  such  distinction  aboard  ship  received  more  careful  attention 
from  the  sailors,  and  hence  insured  a  safer  voyage  for  all  ^\ 
while  the  public  honors  won  by  such  a  statesman  as  Cicero' 
brought  him  the  deference  even  of  Caesar,  long  after  the  orator 
had  ceased  to  have  any  real  power^^.     Sulla,  who  wanted  to 
compliment  Pompey,  a  young  man  as  yet  with  no  official  rank, 
rose  and  saluted  him  with  the  title  Imperator^\     The  pomp 
and  ceremony  with  which  a  magistrate  was  attended  is  indica- 
tive of  the  respect  which  his  position  demanded.     In  dress  he 
was  distinguished  by  the  toga  praetexta  with  its  purple  border^^ 
his  was  the  chair  of  state,  the  sella  curulis^^;  at  public  amuse- 
ments a  special  seat  was  reserved  for  him^^.  j^  ^  provincial 
governor,  he  and  his  staff  were  the  guests  of  towrr^  whr  n  they 
travelled^^     Cicero  took  such  pleasure  in  the  irnhh.    ivrML^nl- 
tion  of  his  official  rank  that  he  hesitanod  i.,  aiau.    at   I'aia.n 
when  on  his  way  to  ('ilicia,  ka.L  liic  euniuMon  of  hnidniir  in' 
small  boats  should  give  no  nppnrtuTut     U^v  appropriam  .ji:.- 
play^s^^    TIa.  lictors  who  Av.av  m  oori.rnnt  aiTondauor  upon  a 
^emaMJ    inad^'   him   a  con^]aru.ai.   ii^urn   whcrcMu-  he   wnnt^^ 
Ihe  i\-.-uhuii-   iuah-iht;,    to  escape  Tintir>r>  -^ometimc^  proved  a 
decidrd    nnnovanrc  even    t-.    ('avro    wh^n    iir   waitrd    (ait>ide 

^'';'''"   '^'_  ''"J"    "^'  -    triiiiiiph'    ,  ur   wa:.  iiut  in  the  mood   to 

onj:'\    puhhaity^^h 

Ihi.piotio  dnmandrd  an  ofxcrvancn  of  official  tith-  in  M)cial 
'"^^'^■'■'"'^'^'■-  "^"^  '^!^1>  ^va^.  it  (hM-oiirt(a)U-<  to  omit  Mich 
inij.ortant  (Uh'.  a>  rnu^id,  Itgattus,  etc.'"-,  but  even  an  au^ur  was 

^-  /  .  4,  7,  G;  5,  6,  13;  9,  16.  2.  ^^  F.  2    \i>.  7. 

»^e.g.     TJv.   I     20;  2.  M     7.    I.    a.  4,;.      ^.e   Smnfi:    V.,n   praa.,ta,   ui.J   ,dUi 
curulis.  ,    ,^ff     ,1     - 

*'  Att.  5.  in.  ;l.  c.;..   .,_  ^.^_  J.    j,^    ..    ^^^  ^ 

*  Att.  8,  1,  3;  8,  3,  ■").      Pi.r  fu!I  >!-'-(  ri;,t ion  ,-,.(■  Snuth-  //r/<,/- 

"°^-    ^•^^  '0'.i/a  11,  a.  1^, 

»«/■.  .V  '..  1:  I.i.  tn.  1;  la,  7.1,  1. 


*    ^ 


10 


11 


careful  to  address  another  rneiulxT  of  his  eolh-ire  as  ''  rollifja  "'"^ 
while  a  merely  honorary  title,  too,  nHi>t  iu>t  he  o\'<M'look«MP'". 
Thus  Cicero  was  indij^niant  when  W'tticnu^  addresMMJ  him 
simply  as  proconsul  after  he  had  \)vv\\  called  i in pcrafDr  by 
his  soldiers,  and  he  retaliated  hy  a  "[x'pfuTy  joke"'"'. 

The  courtesy  due  a  Roman  maui.^trate  re(}nired  that 
matters  which  needed  his  attention  >houl(l  he  hrou^lit  to  him 
by  his  constituents,  to  save  him  the  trouhle  of  iroiFii:  ahoiit 
to  investigate  them^*'^';  it  recjuired  too  that  admis>ion  to  his 
])resence  be  secured  only  by  formal  recjuot'^''.  KesptMt  mu-t 
be  shown  to  a  man's  ofHce  even  if  his  chara<'ter  did  not  de>rr\  e 
it.  "Such  indii^nity  is  never  intlieted  upon  the  most  di>lo>al 
citizen  in  the  humblest  ofhce,"  said  Cicero,  when  deprived  of 
the  privile<i:e  of  addressing;  the  people  at  the  clo^e  of  his 
consulship^^^.  The  consuls  and  praetors  considered  it  an 
insult  that  Caesar  himself  did  not  rise  to  address  them'"'. 

Certain  formal  courte>ies  marked  the  conduct  of  officials 
toward  one  another.  An  out-i^oinu;  ii:o\'ernor  \va^  exju'cted 
to  discontinue  his  administration  immediately  on  the  arrival 
of  his  successor  at  the  borders  of  his  province''",  to  nu'ct  him 
upon  his  arrival  if  possible'",  and  to  turn  oxer  the  office 
unembarrassed  1)\'  difhculties''-.  Care  mu.-.t  be  taken  bv 
governors  whose  territories  adjoine<l  not  to  encroach  upon 
each  other's  jurisdiction"'.  Plutarch  u-i\('>  an  in>ta!ice  of 
courtesy  to  an  opposing  general  in  telling  how  laiculhH' 
lictors  gave  a  part  of  their  fresh  laurel  branches  to  replace 
the  withered  ones  on  Pompey's /f/^'r7,s•''^ 

The  higher  rank  of  a  magistrate  demanded  respect  from 
lower  officials.  "  Kticiuette  forbids  your  finding  fault  with 
me,"  wrote  Cicero  to  Titus   Fadius,   who  had   been  i/innslnr 


i^'F.  15,  S,  1. 

'^*  F.  1.  9,  1;  .4/^  ."),  20,  :;    t. 

•^5,.1«.  10.  11.5. 

>o«  F.  3,  7,  3. 

""  F.  i;-{,  5S  and  5K. 

'^^*  F.  5,  2,  7. 


i"3  Plut.  ('<us.  CO.  2. 

""  /•'.  ;■!,  0.  4:  .1//,  5,   I 

'-  /•'.  A,  5,  ;?    I. 

1'-  F.  A,  2.  2. 

1''  F.   15,   1,1. 

1'^  Plut.  Fi'rnr.  ;!i,  •]. 


0. 


k.   ^ 


\^^ 


under  his  consulship"'.  There  are  frequent  compari.sons,  too, 
of  a  ({U(irst(>r\s  attitude  toward  the  consul  or  general  to  that 
of  a  son  toward  his  father"^  though  this  relationship,  influ- 
enced as  it  was  by  chance,  was  not  so  complimentary  as 
voluntary  friendship"'. 

(\      RksPKCT    F()I{    A<iE 

Tlie    Iu)man    youth    v.as    taught    to    show    respect    for   his 
elder>"\      It   wa^  customary  for  young  men,  ambitious  for  a 
])u})lic   career,   to  attach   themselv(\s  to  an   older  statesman, 
not   only   lor  the   })eneht   of  his  instruction,   but  also  for  the 
honor  of  as.-^ociation  witli  him"".      It  was  counted  one  of  the 
])lea.sures  of  advanciMl  age  thus  to  be  courted  bv  the  voun'^^'-'^ 
(  hrros  es^ay  on   Old  A^jr  refers  frecpiently  to  the  influence 
which   that    period   enjoys,    "so  great,"   he  says,   "that   it   is 
worth  more  than  all  the  diversions  of  youth"'-'.      Good  form 
rerpiired  thost^  who  were  younger  to  make  way  on  the  street 
for  an  elderly  person,  to  rise  when  hv  entered  their  presence, 
and  to  escort  him  toaixi  from  public  f)laces'-'-.     These  customs, 
say>    Cicero,    were   obser\(Ml    not    onlv    in    Rome   but    bv   all 
nation^  who   had   cultixated   manners;  and   he  illustrates  the 
})oiiit   by  a   .-^tory  of  some  Sj)artans  attending  the  theatre  in 
Athens.   uIk,  were  >hocke(l   to  see  no  seat   offcTcd  to  an  old 
gcfitleman   when   he  entered,  and   immediately  gave  him  one 
of  rli(^  places  reserved  for  them  as  foreign  ambassadors.     Since 
the   AthcMiians   a])plau{le(l,   they   evidently    "knew   what   was 
prt^per  but  wc^re  umvilling  to  do  it  "'-•'. 

We  find  Brutus  hesitating  to  give  Cicero  advice  because 
he  "did  not  j)resume  to  counsel  a  man  of  his  age  "'-^^  while  all 
Iiome   rebelled   at   the  iniproj)riety   when   the  senate  heaped 

"'^'-  "■  -^-   '■  •-  /•'.  2.   10.   1;  5.   10,   1. 

'"  /■'.    1-^.    lf».    1  ;    ].{,   L'tl,    1.  11^  f    <j_    J.}     2. 

''^  F    2,   1.  2:  0.   Is.   !;  AH.   i  1,   12,  2;  F.  15.   11,  (i 

"'  ^^'   •^"'  >.  -••■  '-  lh;,i.   17,  (il. 

'■'  F'td.  is,  i\4:  y-.iU  r.  Max,  2,   1.  !»:  I)r  Anur.  li,  12. 
'-De  Sen.  18.  01.  1.4  A((.  Hi,  7.  5. 


12 


f 


13 


honors  upon  one  so  youthful  as  Octavius^-''  and  the  aij:e(l  Cicero 
had  to  follow  his  leaderships-^.  Plutareh  notes  that  before 
Caesar  delivered  a  public  funeral  oration  on  his  wife,  none  hut 
an  elderly  matron  had  received  this  honor^-'.  The  (juestion 
whether  the  courtesies  due  old  a^e  or  those  heloni^nni,^  to 
official  rank  should  take  precedence,  ^Faurus.  the  philosopher, 
decided  as  follows:  '*0n  j)rivate  occasions  a  father  should 
remain  seated  before  his  son,  even  thou^ih  he  be  consnl;  bnt 
in  public  it  were  more  fittin*^  even  for  the  aa:ed  to  show  re>i)e(t 
to  a  magistrate."  Accordingly  he  commended  the  >on  of  ii. 
Fabius  IMaximus,  who  wliile  consul,  bade  his  own  father 
dismount  when  he  met  him  on  a  public  hi^hway'-\  Ju\t'nal 
mourns  the  rudeness  of  his  a<ie  in  contra>t  with  an  earlier 
time  when  it  was  deemed  a  crime  if  a  \'outh  did  not  ri.>e  in 
the  presence  of  an  old  man^-^,  and  this,  Cicero  says,  was  com- 
mon in  his  time^"^^.  Gellius  coni})ares  tlie  early  Uonians' 
respect  for  old  age  to  that  shown  for  j)arents  or  gods''\  which 
suggests  the  old  Hebraic  teaching:  "Thou  shalt  rise  uf)  before 
the  hoary  head,  and  honor  the  face  of  the  old  nuin,  and  ft^ir 
thv  God' 'S3-. 

t 

I).   Occupation':  its  Kffkct  cpox  Social  Staxdixg 

It  is  of  special  interest  to  the  studtMit  of  Roman  eticpiette 
to  notice  how  far  a  man's  occupation  atlVcted  his  social  j)osi- 
tion.  In  earlier  times,  war  and  agriculture  had  been  thought 
the  most  respectable  vocations  for  a  Roman  gentleman'''; 
but  Cicero  placed  the  legal  profession  beside  the  militar\'  as 
one  conferring  equal  dignityS'^',  and  we  know  the  high  social 
position  of  advocates  in  his  age,  courted  as  they  were  by  \ oung 
men  of  noble  births^^     The  fact  that  nominalh'  no  fee  was 


!-^  (ioU.  2,  2. 

'-'  Juv.  lo,  51    '){>. 


'^■-^ad  Brut.  1.  lo.  7. 

'■■^  Att.  \i\,  S.  I. 

'"-•  Plut.  Cues.  5,  2. 

15"  Dc  Invent.  1,  30.  is.      (7.  Sen.  dt  ira  2,  21,  s. 

131  Cell.  2.  15.  !^i  Lerit.  10,  H2.' 

1"  De  Ojjk.  1,  42.  151;  De  Sen.  7.  21.      '""  I'm.  Mar.  11,  :iU. 

13*  De  Amic.  1,  1;  Brut.  89.  300;  Pro  Cad.  1,  U. 


*-r-^ 


paid  for  legal  service  presumably  placed  this  profession  above 
the  j)lane  of  money-makingS•^^  though  in  reality  it  yielded  a 
considerable  income  in  gifts  and  legacies  that  was  by  no  means 
d(^s])isedS'^^ 

Of  professional  arts  Cicero  considered  architecture  and  medi- 
cine the  most  res|)ectableS'^\  He  showed  great  deference  for 
the  \iews  of  his  own  architect,  CyrusS'^'\  and  spoke  of  his 
physician  Asclajx)  as  an  intimate  friends^^,  though  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine  at  this  time  was  largely  practised  by 
fretMlmen,  chiefly  foreigners,  who  were,  as  a  class,  enfranchised 
by  Caesar^ 's  Although  tlie  stage  was  far  from  being  generally 
accepted  as  an  honorable  vocation  in  Cicero's  dayS^'-,  the 
orator  was  ])r()ud  of  his  friendship  with  the  great  actor 
Aesopns'^\  and  j)aid  high  tribute  to  Roscius^-^^  He  also  fre- 
quently referred  to  his  great  esteem  for  the  bankers,  Curius, 
\  estorius,  and  othersS'\  Atticus  himself,  a  leader  in  social 
circles,  was  a  money  lenderS'^  conducted  a  publishing  busi- 
ness''', and  l)ought  and  sold  gladiators^^^.  We  may  infer, 
therefore,  that  mere  money-making  was  not  a  disgrace,  and 
indeed  by  Horace's  time  it  had  become  so  general  as  to  call 
forth  his  satire  upon  its  influence^'-'.  However,  in  spite  of  this 
tendency  to  approve  money-getting,  the  gentleman  of  liberal 
education  continued  to  hold  in  contempt  occupations  of 
handcraft,  shop-keeping,  and  the  like,  so  that  in  the  time  of 
Juvenal  scorn  was  still  felt  for  those  who  had  grown  rich  by 
[)akeries,  batli  houses,  the  business  of  an  undertaker,  auc- 
tionecTing,  and  similar  pursuits^'*'. 

During  the  Ciceronian  age  the  position  of  teachers  ranged 


'■''  Liv.  31.  ■},  \)\  T:if.  Ann.  11,  5. 

'3'  .1//.  1,  20.  7. 

'5^  l)i  Ojltc.  1.  42.  151. 

'^^  Aft.  2,  3.  2. 


^'"  F.  13,  20. 
1^'  Suet.  Cars.  42. 
•^-  Xepos  Pr(uj.  5. 
'«/■>.  1.  2.  14. 


i"  Pro  Arch  in  s;  Pint.  Cic.  5;  cf.  Pliny,  A'.  //.  7,  12S. 

1^^  Att.  0,  2.  3:  F.  13,  17,  1;  13,  50,  1. 

'«.4^/.  S,  7,  3.  1^5  Hor.  S<it.  1.  1,  112. 

'^"  Att.  2,  1,  2.  '^' Juv.  3,  30  ff.;  7,  4. 

1^^  Att.  4,  4'',  2. 


•^ 


14 


from  that  of  the  freedman  who  instructed  the  bovs  in  his 
patron's  family^^S  to  that  of  the  phih)sopher  Oatippus  by 
whom  young  Cicero  was  proud  to  be  "regarckxl  as  a  son"^'-. 
In  the  former  case  the  boys  were  free  to  comphiin  of  their 
tutor's   harsh   discipline^'^\   whik^  even   at   the   Tniversity   of 
Athens  the  orator's  son  referred  in  a  patronizing  manner  to  the 
financial  assistance  he  had  given  his  impecunious  teaclier  of 
rhetoric^^.     But  there  is  evidence  that  children  were  taugfit 
respect   for  their   schoolmaster,    for   they   regarded    the   seat 
next  to  him  that  of  highest  honor^'^'.     The  term  "Father>". 
used   by   the   early   Christian   church    to   <lesignate   teacher^, 
suggests  the  deference  customarily  [)ai(l  to  them  at  Home'*', 
though  it  reflects  also  the  Hebraic  idea  that  a  child  learned 
wisdom   from   the   teaching   of   his   father^''.     This   attitude 
toward  a  teacher  is  a  logical  sequence  of  the  fact   that   many 
Roman   children,   too,   received   their   instruction    from    thrir 
own  parents^'l     Of  the  Gracchi  Cicero  wrote:   "It  is  cvidt'nt 
that  they  were  brought   up   no  less  truly   in   their   mother"^ 
language  than  in  their  mother's  arm>"'  '.     The  reference  to 
Staberius  Eros,  a  friend  of  (^icero's,  who  taught  wiiJiout  com- 
pensation the  children  of  i)ersons  proscribed   by  Sulla.   ma\' 
suggest    that    this    was    more    honorable    than    teachini:    for 
money^^^  but  Marcus  \'errius  Flaccus  received  a  salary  of  fivr 
thousand   dollars   for   educating  the  children  of  Auunistu>"'\ 
and  we  may  note  the  wealth  of  (^uintilian  who  was  a  famous 
schoolmaster  of  a  somewhat  latcT  period""'-. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  (.C('upati(»ns,  we  may  notr 

'^'  .1/^  f),  L  12:  7,  4.  1.  !>-■  F.  ir,,  21.  :•!. 

^"  Cf.  Martiars  reference  to  flo^yiiim  hy  >ch')()!niasters  (in.  Tij,   ](),,  ;i  (re<cn 
from  Herculaneurn    iUustratint;  such   an  incident    i  Baurnei.-^ter,  Dmhrnalrr  HI, 
1590),  and  Horace's  reminiscence  of  his  teacher,  "phmosus  ()rl.iliu>."      ih'jn.sf 
2,  1.  71.) 

^■'^F.  IG.  21,4.  ^^Uhut.2U. 

'-  F.  9,  IS.  4.      (7.  Quint.  2,  9.  i-  Suet,  ./c  (iram.  13. 

^^«Cf.  Quint.  2,  2,4.  i.i  n^ia.  17. 

»*■  Prov.  1,  8;  4,  1.      Cf.  M.  Aurel.  .\fedit.  I.  13.      '^^  Juv.  Sat.  7.  ISS 

1"  Nep.  Att.  1,  2. 


I 


^      1 


-9?^^ 


7 


15 


here  the  rules  of  etiquette  observed  in  business  transactions. 
(Vmrtesy,  for  instance,  forbade  the  buying  of  a  friend's  estate 
Courtesy      ^^^^^^  ^^^  confiscation^^l     Crassus  won  infamy  by 
of  Business    thus  heaping  up  riches  during  Sulla's  proscrip- 
Relations      tions'^''.      He  was    denounced,  too,  for    courting 
favor  with  the  owners  of  property  which  he  wished  to  buy  at  a 
low  figure"'',  and,  though  he  loaned  money  without  interest,  his 
strict   demand   for  prompt   payment  destroyed  the  good  im- 
pression   of    his    intended    generosity"''^      In    the    matter    of 
borrowing   monex".  so  common  among  acquaintances  in  this 
agr"",  we  ha\('  a  shining  exam})le  of  long-suffering  courtesy 
in  Atticus,  whose  ])urse  was  always  ()[)en  to  the  ever-needy 
Cicero"'".      It    was   not    the   j)art   of  a   gentleman   to   press   a 
dt^btor  for  i)ayment  before  it  was  due''''*,  when  the  market  was 
tight''",  or  when  he  was  in  distress'"',  nor  to  sue  a  sponsor 
without  first   notifying  the  debtor  himself'-,  l)ut  it  seems  to 
have  been  possible  to  collect  a  debt  in  court  without  severiuL' 
the    ties    of    friendship''^     Shakespeare's    warning,   however, 
was  founded  on  the  ex[)erience  (tf  ag(>s,  for  we  do  find  that 
lending  money  sometimes  lost  a  friend.     Caelius   Uufus  dis- 
coxcred  in  the  large  sum  which  he  owed  Apj)ius  Claudius,  a 
reason    for    the    hitter's  hostilitv''',  and   Titus  Uufus  staved 
a\\a\  from  Cicero's  sdluidiii,  to  avoid  meeting  there  a  common 
friend  to  whom  he  was  in  debt''"'. 

E.    RKrocxrriox  of  Womkx 
1  ndcr  the  subject  of  class  distinctions  made  by  Cicero  and 
\\\>  contemJ)orarie.^,  it  is  important  to  consider  how  far  thev 

W3.4//.  o,  S,  2.  >fMhid.  1.  4. 

"^  Phit.  Tra.v.v.  2.  4. 

^"  Ihul.  3.   !.      From  Phjtarcli  we  learn  that  Cato  also  kej)t  money  on  hand 
to  lend  hi-  friends  without  int(>rest.      (Plut.  Cat.  Mui.  (>,  3.) 
''•  .1//.  s.  tl.  3:  n,  11.  2;  12,  ol.  3.  ^'^  Ait.  10,  15,  2. 

'"  -1^^-  •''■  l-'>.  -■  '-'Att.  15.   13",  5;  16,  15,  1. 

''^  -1//.  Iti,  2.  1.  i-t  l\  s,  12,  1. 

'''  -^ft.  7,   IS.  4.  :^^.4//.  5,  2,  2. 
'"  Att.  5,  1',).  ]. 


IG 


17 


Social  Freedom 


discriminate  for  or  afrainst  woman  in  the  matter 


of  social  privilee^es.  We  must  remember  that  in 
the  closing  clays  of  the  Republic  the  "emancipation"  of  the 
Roman  matron  was  far  advanced^'*'.  The  ideal  of  woman- 
hood was  now  found  in  records  of  the  past,  such  as  the  toml)- 
stones  which  told  of  the  lovin^^  wife  and  mother  who  "  ke{)t 
the  home  and  made  the  wool"'",  or  who  "married  but 
once"^'^,  and  in  tlie  exce])tional  mother  who  nursed  and 
taught  her  own  children''-'.  The  |)raise  bestowed  upon  such 
womanly  virtues  of  a  bygone  age  suggests  their  absence  in 
the  present'^^. 

Nominally  the  wife  of  that  earlier  time  had  bcuMi  under 
the  complete  control  of  her  husband'^'.  But  (/ato  the  I'hicr, 
that  enemy  of  womankind,  had  disclosed  the  fact  that  even 
the  ideal  Roman  matron  of  those  earlv  daxs  wa>  not  entireh' 
satisfactory.  She  had  made  some  progress,  indeed,  toward 
the  liberty  enjoyed  by  her  daughters  in  Cicero's  age.  "All 
men  rule  women,"  the  Censor  bitterl\-  remarked,  "we  Romans 
rule  all  men,  and  our  wives  rule  us"'^-;  and  of  the  three  things 
of  which  he  repented  during  his  whole  life,  one  was  that  he 
had  ever  told  a  secret  to  any  woman'^\  The  following  un- 
gallant  words  of  Metellus  Mactulonicus  are  recorde<l.  too,  in 
Gellius:  "If  we  could  do  without  wives  we  should  lie  rid  of  a 
nuisance "^^^^  But  through  a  series  of  struggles,  waged  .some- 
times by  militant  methods,  the  women  of  Rome  had  attained 
both  civic  and  social  [)rivilcges'^"\  and  although  Cato  th(^ 
Younger  transferred  his  own  wife  to  Ilortensius  by  consent  of 
her  father^^^,  such  subjection  in  a  woman  was  unusual  in  thi> 

1'^  Donaldson,  Woman  in  (irrece  and  Rrnru\  pp.  s3  ff.  A^hntr,  Sncicty  and. 
Politics  in  Rome,  41  if.     Drum.  G.  H.  V.  3tii)  tl. 

1"  C  I  L   I.  1007;  VI.  1527;  VI,  U49U.      ''^  P-id.  VI,  3^01. 

!■»  Catul.  61,  212  ff.;  Plut.  Cato  Mai.  20.  'r.  Tar.  Dud.  2s. 

1*0  Cic.  Bnit.  i)^,  211.  1^3  I}, J,}    ()    () 

'siGell.  3.  2,  12-1:5.  -'Kiel!.  1,  »'.. 

i«  Plut.  Cato  Mai.  S,  4. 

i»5  Val.  Max.  S,  3,  3;  Liv.  s.  IS;  34.  l-^s;  cf.  Marcp  Pr.  03  fT. 

i'*«Plut.  Cato  Mm.  25:  3. 


age.  We  shall  imd,  rather,  that  she  enjoyed  great  respect 
and  courtesy  from  men,  notwithstanding  the  many  examples 
of  immorality  which  resulted  from  her  social  freedom^'*". 

As  long  as  Cicero  was  able  to  keep  ])eace  with  his  wife, 
Terentia,  his  attitude  toward  her  showed  not  onlv  the  affec- 
tion  ex])ectcd  from  a  luisban(l'''\  but  a  frank  and  kind  ac- 
knowledgment of  her  noble  character'^',  of  her  courage  and 
fortitude  as  greater  than  a  man's'"',  and  of  her  influence  over 
himself'''.  Ib^  chivalrously  refused  to  have  her  sliare  the 
misery  of  his  exile'"-;  and  desired  to  protect  her,  "as  a  hus- 
band should,  from  anxiety  an.d  hardship"'-'''.  Even  the  last 
letter  of  ( 1cero'>  correspondence  with  Terentia,  which  is  simply 
a  <-urt  request  that  she  have  his  Tusculan  villa  made  ready 
for  himself  and  guests'-",  is  discourteous  in  manner  rather  than 
in  content.  J^'or  the  Roman  matron  claimed  such  direction 
of  her  household  as  her  special  privilege.  We  recall  ]\)m- 
ponia's  (juarrel  with  (^uintus  Cic(To,  who  on  one  occasion  gave 
orders  for  dinner  without  consulting  her.  "1  seem  to  be  a 
stranger  in  my  own  house,"  she  said,  and  refused  to  appear 
at  the  dinner,  although  gue.->ts  were  l)eing  entertained^'-*''. 
Moreover,  since  (^uintiis  Cicero  entrusted  Pomj)onia  with  his 
signet  ring,  during  his  absence  from  Rome,  we  infer  that  at 
.^uch  timc>  >hc  attended  also  to  his  j)rivate  business'''^'. 

A>  to  a  daughter'^  position  in  the  Roman  household,  we 
ma\  learn  nnich  from  Cicero's  correspondence,  in  the  refer- 
ence.^ not  only  to  his  attentions  to  TuUia''*',  but  also  to  the 
life  of  Atticu>'  little  girl,  who  was  the  pet  of  her  father'-'*". 
If  Tullia  wished  or  advised,  CiciTo  was  ready  to  act  in  accord- 
ance with  her  ])leasure  or  judgment,  be  it  to  set  aside  his  own 
plans  and  take  her  to  Antium  for  the  games'"'-*,  or  to  follow 

'•^'  Phit.  Ant.  0.  ;^-  and  10,  2:   pro  C(ul  20.  40;  Drum.  G.  R.  II:  371;  V:  388  ff. 

'■^^  /■'.   n.    I.   1.  '•'•'^  F.  14,  20. 

'^^  F.  14,  4,  t..  i^''  Att.  5,  1,  3  4. 

''■■''  F.  1  I,   1.   1  :  U.  7,  2.                                 i-'^'  Att.  11,  0,  2. 

1*1  F.  1  1.  2.  2.  '^'  F.  14,  2,  1:  -4//.  1.  5.  8. 

'^-  F.  14,  4,  3,  ■•■"•  Att.  o,  11).  2,  7.  2.  4. 

=  53  F.   14.  2.  2  ''■"'  Att.  2,  S.  2. 


V 


18 


her  advice  in  legal  controversy^oo.  Durin.E,^  the  wretched 
months  of  poHtical  unrest,  when  he  waited  at  BruncHsiuni, 
torn  by  indecision  and  despair,  it  was  the  companionshij)  of 
this  beloved  daughter  that  he  wished  for  constantly-"';  and 
when  she  was  ill,  nothing  was  important  enough  to  call  him 
from  her  bedside^^-. 

Atticus'  daughter,  though  much  younger,  seems  to  ha\c 
received  quite  as  much  attention  in  her  father's  houseliold. 
He  scarcely  wrote  even  a  business  hotter  to  dcero  without 
referring  to  her,  or  inclosing  a  message  from  her-'"l  His 
friends,  too,  recognized  Attica's  im{)()rtance  in  her  parent'^ 
life,  and  so  paid  their  tribute  of  appreciation"-'".  We  notice 
that  in  letters  written  to  tlie  women  of  one's  own  family,  the 
formal  address,  which  was  a  mark  of  courtesy,  wa>  used '"'. 

Outside  the  home  circle  the  woman  of  Cicero's  tinu'  was  no 
less  conspicuous.  She  went  with  her  male  rclativ(^s  to  public 
places  of  amusement-•^^  and  sat  among  the  men'-'*';  but  such 
a  vulgar  flirtation  in  the  theatre  as  that  of  which  Hortc^nsiu..' 
sister  was  once  guilty  ai)parently  olTended  good  taste  as  nuu'li 
then  as  it  would  now-"\  Women  also  dined  with  men'-"'', 
and  indeed  their  presence  was  a  matter  not  of  tolerance,  !)ut 
of  importance,  for  Cicero  once  omitted  a  man  from  liis  Ii>t 
of  dinner  guests  to  prevent  Tertia.  l^rutus"  si.tcr,  from 
declining  an  invitation-"'.  Good  form  re({uirc(l  that  women 
should  sit  and  not  recline  at  the  banquet  table -'.  and  >}ionld 
drink  no  wine-'-.  Presunud)ly  the  gentlewoman  was  accom- 
panied by  her  husband  or  some  male  relative  when  >lie  dined 


'-'■-  F.  r,,  is,  '. 


■''  At!.  4.  It).  J:  1(1.  .s.  1. 

-"'  Att.  11.  17,  1. 

"''Att.  6.  1,  2-;  12,  14,  4;  IJ,  '2A.  ;];  12.  24,  :V.  13    ■^•~>    \ 

^■<^'Atf.   12.3:5,  2;   13,   12.   1;   13.    13.  3;   15.  2!».   1. 

20^  F.  14,  21^24;  14,   II.  17,  etc.      (^f.  p.  (V,. 

'^'Att.  2.  S.  2;   d,  hnr.  n.<p.   12.  2t:  ,  f.  Val.  Max.  0,  3,   12;  Suof.  Au;.  41 

20'  Plut.  .S?///rt.  35,  .-,  ti.  .10 /.-    |,i    .,.,    J 

2o^Plut.  Sulla.  35,  s.  :u  v^,i    y^~~^    ."    ,    ^ 

"^  Nepos.  Praef.  (I;  Aff.  2,  3,  3;  .'..   1,  3-4. 

2'^  Pliny.  A^.  H.  14,  !)();  Val.  Max.  i).  3,  '»;  S.-i.  Fj,.  05.  21;  (^it;:!.  27    3. 


19 


with  men'-'^  but  we  know  tliat  the  Vestal  Virgins  were  present 
without  e.scorts  at  public  baiKpiets  on  feast  days'-' ^ 

In  notable  contrast  to  (ireek  usage,  prominent  men  called 
uj)()n  women  of  their  own  social  rank.  During  Vatinius' 
absence  from  Ivome,  Cicero  oil'ered  to  go  to  see  his  wife,  if  he 
could  be  of  an\  s^rx  ice  to  her-'',  and  he  went  to  visit  Cato's 
-^i.-^ter,  Porcia,  with  ])roirers  of  as>istance  for  her  son"-'*'.  Merely 
as  a  friendly  courtoy.  lIorten>ius  turned  out  of  his  way  to  call 
upon  Tereiitia.  when  he  was  passing  near  Cicero's  villa'-'',  and 
the  latter  paid  the  same  respect  to  Atticus'  wife,  while  she 
was  .staying  at  ruteoli'-'^. 

In  social  gatherings  we  find  women  taking  ])art  with  men  in 
the  discussion  of  public  matters-'''.  In  one  instance  Cicero 
admits  that  he  interru])ted  Servilia  because  she  was  ()p|)osing 
his  argument "-",  though  he  does  not  also  im})ly  that  his  conduct 
was  the  more  di-eourteous  in  that  she  was  a  woman.  Men  on 
the  street  were  expected  to  make  way  for  women'"'.  Their 
failure  to  do  so,  which  called  forth  action  by  the  senate'"^ 
ma\  ha\e  been  due  less  to  an  absence  of  courtesy  tlian  of  space 
for  pedestrians,  since  in  the  twentieth  century  the  etiquette  of 
Roman  street  life  re\'eals  the  same  fault.  Propriety  allowed 
a  woman  to  greet  her  relations  with  a  kis.s"—^,  but  we  remember 
that  Cato  the  ( "ensor  expelled  Manlius  from  the  senate  for 
ki-sing  his  wife  in  the  presence  of  others'-"-'.  There  is  some 
e\  idence  that  it  was  customary  for  women  to  use  the  public 
baths  at  tlie  end  of  the  He])ublic;  for  Atia,  the  mother  of 
Augustus,  did  so'--',  and  Plutarch  says  that  the  Romans,  under 
(Jreek  influence,  ceased  to  (lisapi)rove  of  wives'  bathing  with 
tlieir  husbands'--*'. 

Woman's  social  activities,  in  the  age  which  we  are  studying, 


-nz 


pro 


(\i<l.  S.  211;  20.  49. 


■■'  Macr.  Sat.  .),  13,  11. 

■'■■■>  F.  5.  11,  2. 

-'^  F.  (i,  22,  3. 

'-'■  Att.  10,  1(1.  5. 

•'•-  Att.  14,  20,  5. 

2'^  Att.  15,  11,  12. 


"0  .1//.  15,  11,  2. 

-'-1  Plut.  Rom.  20.  G. 

—  Val.  Max.  5,  2,  1. 

"'■'  Plut.  (Ic  rnulicr.  virt.  1 ;  Suet.  Jul.  13. 

■-■'  Plut.  Cato  Mai.  17,  10. 

^-^Suct.  Aug.  94. 

2^Mnut.  Cato  Mai.  20,  10. 


20 

allowed  her  a  prominent  part  in  the  arrancrement  of  betrothals, 
even   outside   her   own    family   circle--'.     Hence   the    match- 
making mother  of  to-day  has  her  Roman  pr()t()typc"\     An 
ambitious  young  woman  might  also  keej)  watch  for  her  own 
opportunities.     Cicero  complains  that  a  thoughtlos  comi)!!- 
raent  which  he  paid  to  a  lady  was  wrongly  interpreted  as  a 
suggestion  that  he  wished  to  marry  her-".     Her  forwardness. 
which  thus  annoyed  the  famous  orator,  makes  n^  won.ler  how 
many  of  the  names  submitted  to  him  by  Attiei!>  for  a  ciioiec 
of  his  second  wife,  had  been  suggested  by  the  women  them- 
selves'-'^".    Quintus  Cicero,  the   younger,  tells   of   an  oll'er  ..f 
marriage  from  a  young  woman-'^   but   hi..   uneh>  di.eredlte<l 
this^as  another  instance  of  this  young  man's  chronic  roman- 
emg-^-.     However,  the  girlisli  independence  of  Attien>'  >n,all 
daughter  who  took  her  father's  fri(.nd,  Cleern.  to  tadv  for  any 
neglect  of  attention  to  her-",  would  indicate  that  the  woman  /.f 
this  period  grew  up  with  some  idea  of  the  re.ptvt  which  s.u-iety 
owed   her.     A   notable  instance  of  the  comradelike  e(|uality 
possible  between  man  and  woman  at  tlii.  time  i.  found   in 
the   friendship   of   Cicero   and    (^terellia.     11, ey    met    on    tiic 
common  ground  of  intellectual  companionship'*,   but   ("icero 
also   borrowed   money   from    her-'^\   and    she   proxed    her  dis- 
interested attitude  in  their  relations  by  her  attemi)t  to  recon- 
cile him  to  his  young  wif(%  Publilia-''\ 

Man's  attittide  toward  woman  i>  often  indicated  by  the 
moral  stamlard  which  he  sets  for  her.  There  i.  no  denying 
that  the  prominent  women  of  this  i)eriod  did  not  entirely 
forfeit  their  social  position  by  their  immorality,  when  Scrvilia's 
beautiful  villa  at  Xai)les  was  known  to  be  the  gift  of  Caesar- ', 
and   her  influence  over   him   was  admitted   in   the  <enate-''^ 


^^-  Att.  6,    1.   10;   1L>,   11,    1 
"»  Att.  5.  21.  14. 
"^--1^/.  15.  r*.  4. 
"'^  Att.  12,  11. 
231  Att.  15.  29,  2. 
"2.4//.  10,  .'i  3. 


-''  Atf.  15.  27.  :<:  15.  J^. 
-'*  At!.  !;•!,  21.  5. 
-•-  Aft.  12.  51.  ;i. 
-^''  Att.  14,  lit,  4. 
-•^^  -1//.  14,  21,  ;•!. 
-^^-1//.  2,  21,  A. 


I 


21 


when  Clodia  swayed  the  social  and  political  leaders  of  Rome 
in  s{)ite  of  her  notoriously  loose  character^^;  and  when 
deopatra  dared  appear  in  Rome  as  Caesar's  guest'^".  But 
there  is  sufHcient  evidence  that  no  such  moral  standard  was 
accepted  for  tlie  resj)ectable  Roman  matron.  Caelius,  when 
he  wrott^  Cicero  a  cha])ter  of  society  scandal,  added:  "There 
are  many  incredible  things  of  this  nature  which  have  happened 
in  your  absence "-'^  The  orat(>r,  too,  when  he  had  attended 
a  dinner  at  which  a  woman  of  (piestionable  character  was 
j)re>ent,  oll'ered  the  excuse  that  he  had  not  known  that  she 
would  be  there'-'-.  Again,  to  s{)are  a  friend  mortihcation,  he 
refrained  from  mentioning  in  his  ])resence  the  unfaithfulness 
of  the  hitter's  wife-'\  The  ver\-  ])leasure  which  dcero's 
gossi])-loving  soul  found  in  the  discovery  that  a  young  rake 
carrie(l  in  his  luggage  from  Rome  the  ])ortraits  of  many  of  its 
iiKtst  ])rominent  matrons,  reveals  the  fact  that  the  society  of 
the  capital  did  not  >anetion  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  its 
elect-". 

Hie  re>pect  paid  to  wonuMi  by  Cicero's  contemporaries  did 
not  stop  with  social  formalities.  In  the  sphere  of  political 
activity  their  inHueiice  is  plainly  visible.     Indeed,  if  Cato  the 

Klder  could  have  returned  to  Rome  at  this  time, 


Public 
Influence 


he  might  have  recalled  sadly  his  own  i)r()phetic 
warning  to  the  senate:  "  When  once  women  have 
begun  to  be  our  ecpials,  they  will  become  our  superiors  "-^"\ 
We  have  various  instances  in  which  a  man's  political  success"^^ 
or  rtH'all  from  exile  was  due  to  his  wife's  elTorts"-'',  and  also  of  her 
mediation  between  her  husband  and  his  ])olitical  opponents"^^. 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  Caesar  and  wife  of  Pompey,  surely  held 
the  thread  which  bound  the  great  triumvirate  together,  and 

^^'  Att.  2,  •».  1  ;  2,  1,  5;  j>ro  Cutl.  14,  IVA:  20,  50. 

-'  .4//.  15.  15,  2.  '■'''  Liv.  :M.  .':!. 

•^'  F.  S.  7.  2.  '^c  F.  4.  2,  1;  5,  0.  1. 

•■•-  F.  9.  20,  2.  '  -^'  F.  14.  4.  2;  15,  7;  15,  8. 

'-^-'  .4//.  ir.,  11,  1.  '^^  F.  5,  2,  0. 

-'■'.4//.  0,  1,  25. 


22 

which  snapped  at  her  death'-'-'.  Pornpey.  at  the  hei-ht  of  hi. 
fame,  allowed  his  h)ve  for  hw  to  infhieiice  his  puhhe  can-cr, 
since  he  resi.i^nied  the  command  of  h^irions  and  distant  [)roviiic('. 
to  avoid  separation  from  her''^  Tht-  peopk'  (h'manded  a 
celebration  of  her  fnneral  on  tlie  ( 'ani})us  Martins,  altfioii-h  htT 
husband  had  phmned  to  bnry  her  privately-"'.  Hnt  tfii>  was 
not  an  exceptional  honor  for  a  woman;  as  early  a>  1()L>  I^  (\ 
a  funeral  oration  had  been  delivered  for  Popilia.  the  mother 
of  Quintus  Catulns'-'-,  and  there  are  many  later  in>tanc('s-^l 

There  is  no  tellinu:  how  nnich  of  the  incon>i>tency  of  Hrutu,.' 
political  moves  was  due  to  tlie  conflictinir  influence  of  hi.  wife 
Porcia,  Cato's  dau,t.diter,  who  was  hi>  confidant  and  po>>ible 
inspiration  in  the  plot  a-ainst  Caesar-  \  and  of  hi.  mother 
Servilia,    the    Dictator's    favorite-  '.      Durinir    the    disorderly 
days  followin.cr  the  assassination  on    March   the  fifteenth,  it 
was  Servilia  who  sent  for  (^icero  to  discuss  plans  of  action-'^, 
and  the  great  statesman  once  apoloudzcd   to  her  son-in-hiw, 
Cassius,  for  not  havintr  followed  her  advice  in  the  senati'-"'. 
Bruttis  would  write  to  his  mother  and  >istcr  political  confi- 
dences  which    they    were   to  share  with   ('icero-'\      Plutarch 
describes  Antony's  wife,  Fulvia,  as  a   woman   "not  born  for 
spmning    nor   for    h()usekee|)in<,^    not    content    with    rulini;    a 
husband   of   private    rank,    but    prepared    to    <:overn    a    chief 
magistrate,  or   to   give    orders    to  a    eonnnander-in-chief " -", 
and  she  it  was  who  secured  the  bribes  paid  to  Antony  by  the 
eastern  monarch,    Deiotarus.   for  gaining  the  intercession   of 
the  Roman  senate'-^*^. 

Of  Terentia,  (/icero  said  that  she  would  rather  thrust  herself 
into  his  public  atfairs  than  communicate  her  domestic  matters 


■-"■'-  (It    Ordtnvf   _',    11,    n. 

-  '  .>uet.  Jul.  0;  iJio  ('a.- 


■'-''  Att.  2.  17.  1;  Plat.  Pomp.  53.  .",. 

•-■'opiut.  Cras.s.  10,  1;  Plut.  Pump.  5;j.  12 

-'1  Plut.  Pomp.  5:5,  4. 

■^'  Att.  13.  9,  2;  Att.  15.  11,  1;  Plut.  Brut.  13,  ;]~4. 

^^^  ad  Brut.  1.  IS.  1.  ,:,  pi,^^     .j^^^    j,,^  ^_ 

^-  I-'  '^'  1-  ^'^  Att.  11.  12.  I. 


3U,  t;4. 


i'      * 


23 

to  liinr'\  and  if  >he  did.  as  Plutarch  tells  us,  influence  him  to 
testify  against  ( ■lodius-'-',  she  indeed  directed  the  course  of  his 
hie  thereafter,  which  involved  important  public  measures. 
To  Precia,  the  wife  of  Cethegus,  Lucullus  and  other  political 
b'aders  app.^aled  in  behalf  of  any  public  measure  for  which 
they  desired  her  husband's  supj)()rt-''\  and  the  fate  of  the 
Athenian^,  when  concpicred  by  Sulla,  was  more  serious  because 
tlu-v-  had  sculled  at  his  wife  Metella  from  the  walls-*'^ 


2'^'  Vl'.it.  Cic.  2(1.  2. 

"-  IMin.  r:.\  2't.  1. 


2«3IMiir.  Lurul.  .;,  ;■;   O. 
2Mplut.  S.dla.  ti.  18. 


I  . 


CHAPTER   II 


SOCIAIL  FUNCTIONS  AND  DUTIES 

A.   Regard  for  Manners  and  Dress 

Before  we  pass  to  the  study  of  separate  social  functions  and 
the  Romans'  idea  of  their  proper  performance,  we  shall  con- 
sider what  regard  there  was  for  manners  in  general,  including 
the  subject  of  dress,  which  is  likewise  one  asj)cct  of  what 
propriety  demands. 

We  are  apt  to  think  of  the  ideal  Roman  of  Republican  times 

as  the  exponent  rather  of  stern  virtues  than  of  good  manners, 

but  we  find,  in  fact,  a  marked  regard  for  the  latter  also.      It 

is  a  pleasure  to  discover  that  Cato  the  ( 'cnsor  was 
Persons.! 
Manners      admired  not  for,  but  in  spite  of,  his  rudt^icss  and 

disregard  for  c()nvention\  but  even  he  would  not 

have  near  him  "a  soldier  who  wagged  his  hands  when  he  walked. 

shuffled  his  feet  when  he  fought,  or  snored  in  his  sleep""-.     In 

Cicero's  age  the  younger  Cato  was  censured  for  imitating  his 

blunt  ancestor  and  his  rudeness  cost  him  the  consulship'.    When 

he  went  to  Asia,  Cicero  expressed  the  hope  that  he  would  bring 

back  more  agreeable  manners  from  his  visit'.     It  is  interesting 

to  note  that  then,  as  now,  politeness  was  attributed  to  city 

influence*'.     Marius,   who  had  spent   his  early  life  in  a   j)oor 

little  village,  ''began  too  late  to  haunt  the  citv  and  learn  the 

manners  of  Rome  "^,  and  so  he  had  not  thecivilitv  to  attract 

and  entertain  courteouslv  those  who  came  to  him.     "There- 

fore  in  times  of  peace  men  paid  no  attention  to  him,  but  in 

wars  onlv/'  savs  Plutarch'. 


1  Plut.  Cato  Mai.  3,  2;  4.  2. 

2  Ibid.  9,  G. 

3  Plut.  Cato  Min.  35;  50,  2. 
*  Ibid.  14,  3. 


^  F.  3.  <,»,  1, 

«  Plut.  Manns  3.  1, 

■  I'>id.  32.  2. 


24 


I  ^ 


25 


The  contrast  between  Pompey's  haughty  formality  and  the 
gracious  manners  of  Crassus  had  much  to  do  with  the  dif- 
ference in  their  popularity^  So  Gaius  Gracchus  had  won 
public  favor  by  his  great  courtesy^  and  so  Dolabella's  "charm 
of  manner"  served  to  outweigh  his  moral  shortcomings  in  the 
estimate  of  Cicero's  familv^^\ 

As  to  what  were  good  manners  in  Cicero's  day,  we  have 
some  details.     When  three  persons  walked  or  sat  together, 
the  place  of  honor  was  that  in  the  middle^^     To  rise  in  the 
presence  of  one  wlio  entered  was  a  mark  of  respect^^^     This 
courtesy  the  senate  showed  ( ^u'sar  in  a  bodv^\  and  Sulla  alwavs 
stood  with   uncovered  head  to  receive  Pompey,  although  he 
was  younger  than  himself^'.     An  unusual  demonstration  for 
Romans  was  that  of  Cato's  soldiers,  who  spread  their  clothes 
at  his  feet,  and  ki>se(i  his  hand  as  he  passed^l     We  find  that 
certani   forms  of  sj)eech   were  regarded  as  afl'ectation^^  and 
(^cero    eon.^idered    it    rude    to    contradict'".     lie    refused    to 
a{)p()mt  a  certain  (Javius  to  an  office  during  his  governorshij) 
ot  Cilicia  because  of  the  diseourteous  manner  of  his  asking  for 
It;   without    any    evidence   that    he   would   aj)preciate   such    a 
favor,  he  liad  simply  said:   "Where  do  you  want  me  to  get  the 
allowances  of  prefectr"''    Again,  (^icero  re])rimanded  Lepidus 
because  he  failed  to  ex})ress  thanks  to  the  senate  for  honors 
conferred   upon    him''*.      Drunkenness  was  a   breach   of  good 
nui II nets'",  as  well  as  other  forms  of  del)aucher^'-^      Dancin^' 
vxvvpt  in  religious  rites,  was  not  in  good  taste"".     There  were 
times  a!i<l  places  inappro{)riate  for  a  man  of  Cicero's  promi- 
nence to  be  seen  in  public.     So  he  feared  criticism  if  he  should 
appear  at  the  gay  resort  of  Paiae  during  a  time  of  national 


^  Phit,  rr,7v,v.  7,  4    ."). 

-'  Pint  .   ('.   drar.   (1.   3. 

'''  Mt.  (i.  ti.    1. 

"   I'lut.   dr.   -,    1;   Plut.   (\,t<>  Min.  r,7.    1 

'-   Pint.    Ciitn  Mill.    14,    1. 

'^  Plut.  Cars.  titi.   -2. 

'"  Plut.  PnrnjK  S.  4:   Plwt.   Crass,  f,,  .">. 

--  fifi'  Afur.  (■>.   l.i.      a.  ,n  Pi.^iiN.   10,  22 


=  •'  Plut.  Cato  Min.  12,  1. 

•'  Att.   1,  14,  1. 

'■  F.  3.  s,  5. 

'^  Atf.  i),  3.  (i. 

^»  F.  10,  27,  1. 

""  /'.  12.  2.  1. 

"'  Plut.  .4/?^  9:  2-4. 

Serv.  ad  Verg.  Ed.  5,  73. 


I  I 


n 


L>0 


misfortiine-"\  and  he  considered  it  l)eneatli  his  dit^nitv  to  have 
the  impression  spread  hrn;Hh-a-t  tl;:'.t  he  v.ouhl  \  i.-it  (Ireeee 
to  see  the  01ymj)ian  pinies'-^ 

However  the  orator  may  oil'eiid  (»nr  ta>te  hy  hi^  own  x-lf- 
praise-^  he  makes  frequent  reference  to  the  inih'hcacy  of 
dwelling  upon  one's  own  achic\-eni(MitN-'\  or  forciiiu-  one's 
ideas  upon  others-'.  In  the  matter  of  jokini,^  on  pcr-onal 
subjects,  considerable  freedom  wa-  apparently  pernii-^ihh' 
between  friends.  When  (/icero  had  failed  to  receive  a  letter 
in  a  lontj:  time  from  Trel)atiu>.  he  wrote  to  tlii>  \ounu-  la\vy(>r: 
*'If  you  have  for^^^otten  how  to  write,  fewer  will  be  the  clients 
who  will  lose  their  cases  by  emploxini:  you  as  their  ad\-oeate'"'\ 
and  to  Wderitis,  when  he  wished  him  to  come  home  from 
Cilicia:  "People  from  xour  neiu-hborliood  >ay  that  \  on  are 
proud,  because  you  <,dve  no  opinions,  or  insultini:  because  you 
give  bad  ones."-^  lb'  ofieii  twittrd  Aitieii.  ahoui  lii-  scanty 
meals-'^'\  his  closeness  with  money^*.  or  some  >lip  in  his  hterary 
work'^-.  Even  bodily  defect.^"*  were  the  >ubject  of  -nth  wit 
as  that  of  Appius,  who  said  to  Sextiu>,  a  man  with  onl\  one 
eye:  "I'll  come  to  dine  with  you,  for  I  -(•(>  there  i>  room  for 
one."  This,  to  be  sure.  Cicero  regardtMl  a-  iroing  too  far, 
though  he  approved  of  Sextiu-'  r<'ply:  "  \Va>h  \  oin-  hand-  and 
come"''^  Other  ex'ideiiee  on  thi-  -ul)jcet  ma}  be  found  in 
the  section  treating  of  etitpiette  for  public  -peak<  rs^-'. 

(h)od  manners  naturallx  iiichide*!  ^i^uw  form  t)f  -ahitatiL'U 
wlien  one  met  an  ac(juaintance.      Iba-acc  iiotr^  i  !ic  tailnr.' of  n 

-  F.  !>,  :].  1:  <>,  -J.  .1.  2^  /■    :,  !  I    !. 

-*  Ati.    It).    7,   .-).  29  f      I       j,)      }_ 

-'inCil.  Ill    li    /    .-    7,  3.  "^«.  6,  1.13;  16,  3.1.    Cf.  Nep.  ^«.  13. 

2«  Acad.  2,  1    :;:  .1//,  1,  h;,  -,   i,  13,5.     31  ^^^,  4^  ^^    j     ^^  ,-,_   ^ 

-'Acad.   !.   \.  14:  J,  .in.   11  \  3'- Att.  12,  6,  4. 


33  Tlu'    K.>; 


11:1: 


v^  '■!•(•   t,:ir 


t  leularly  keen  to  note  these,  as  is  evident  from  the 
<  t>ni(jl()i;y  of  th.  ir  names,  e.  g.  Barbatus,  Naso,  Capito,  Rufus,  Caesar  (Plut. 
Coriol.  11).  i  h.  ir  i  ■  < .  ridants  also  exhibit  a  proneness  to  give  offensive  nick- 
n  irues,  so  many  of  which  are  found,  for  instance,  in  a  list  of  their  painters: 
O  itriinr).  "the  squint-eyed";  Giorgione,  "Big  George";  Masaccio,  "Dirty 
Tom."  etc. 

3<  de  Oratore  2.  246.  w  pp.  75  ff. 


V  ♦ 


"    ^X 


h 


VI 


'/ 


27 


tradesman  to  >ay  '"good  morning"  fir.st  to  a  wealthy  man  on 
the  street'''.      "J/v"  was  long  the  customary  greeting  of  the 
Homanv'',  but  Servius  thought  that  -diaking  the  right  hand 
w;i>  the  usual  formality  iji  these  earlier  times'^\     Great  stress 
wa.  laid   upon  calling  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  one 
spoke:   hence    the    custom    of    employing    a    nofumrhifur,    to 
announce  who  wa>  approaching  on  the  street  or  at  the  morn- 
'"-  ''l^-^'ption".     One  reax.n  why  (^rassus  made  such  an  im- 
1*''*;^^'""  ^;y  '^'^  <-<»urte^x-  was  that  he  ncvia-  met  evcai  a  humble 
citizen  without  returning  liis  >alute  by  nainc^^     In  the  more 
demonstrative  greeting  between  friends,  embraces  and  kisses 
wtav  cxchange,b=;    but    ki»ing,  so  general  as  to  form  a   fea- 
ture of  the  host's  reception  of  his  guests  at  the  sahifafio,  did 
lint    bec«.ine  customary   before  the  empire^-,  when    the  habit 
is    referred    to    as    ex(rs>ive''\    and  was   finallv    forbidden    })v 
law''. 

The  Pvomans  gave  considerable  attention   in  dcero's  age  to 
appropriate  dress  and  proper  personal  appearance'*.    We  note 

hrst  Its  significance  in  the  designation  of  civil 
rank.  A  bo;,  lai.l  aside  his  childhood  dress  with 
special  ceremonies  and  assumed  the  for/a  rin'lis  or  garb  of  citi- 
zcnship"-,  which  was  the  r)nly  proper  dress  for  the  Forum  and 
all  tormal  occasions-y  but  should  be  removed  indoors'^  So 
^■nniph'teiy  wa^  the  fu(fa  identihed  with  Roman  nationality 
ifinl  as  a  people  thex  were  called  7C//.V /n././/./ -'.  A  special  form 
"^  ^'"'  ^"-•'-  "i*"^''  f»y  the  addition  of  a  puri)le  border  and 
<-Jhd  iIh'  /-;/</  j>ra^f>j:fa,  marked  the  wearer  as  of  jiiirf,  ofhcial 
«Ep.  1,  7,  66. 

*'  Sen.  de  Bene/.  6,  34,  3;  F.  8,  16,  4.     Cf.  Mart.  1,  108.  1  1    7,  39,  2. 
»8Serv.  ad  Aen.  1,  408. 

"AU.  4,  1,5;  pro  Mur.  36,  77;  Sen.  ad  Seren.  11    I     <■:.  Mir,i    />     iw    117 
<°  Plut.  Crass.  3,  5. 

<i  Acad.  1,  1,  1;  Plut.  Cato  Min.  37    I    P   -    ij    /:.  0;  Pliny,  N.  H.  14    [hk 
«  Suet.  Otho  6.  «  Alt.  9,  6,  1;  9,  19.  1;  see  Marq.' Pr.  124-125. 

<«  Mart.  11,  98.  *^  Suet.  Aiig.  40. 

«  Suet.  Tib.  34.  «  pro  Milan.  10,  28.     Cf.  Med.  of  .M.    Vurel   1    7 

«  Gell.  13,  22  (21).  «  Verg.  Aen.  1,  282. 


Dress 


1 


28 


29 


rank^^,  and  senators,  too,  wore  a  distinctive  shoe^^  The  gen- 
era 1  .^  iiiilitary  cloak  gave  him  the  name  paludatus,  in  contrast 
to  tlir  togatus,  or  toga-clad  private  citizen^-;  and  if  he  received 
i  1!;  i!![>li  hr  wore  in  proof  thereof  an  elaborately  embroid- 
trr.l  Toga^^. 

Tlir    prnr»rr    occasion    and    manner    of    wearing    different 
L:.ifii!.  !iT^    was   determined   by  etiquette.     The   conventional 

<  ri     ii  .  win      i  jM  Mt.i  once  in  the  wrong  cloak,  made  haste  to 

<  li  i!!ur  i!  ,  w  hilt  <  in  firoiurbt  disgrace  on  his  office  of  praetor 
by  gniiiLr  Hi  (  !iri  \  iihout  his  siioes  and  tunic^^,  and  was  guilty 
"1  *  oiit.  flip!  smp  1,1  hion  ii!  scaring  dark  purple,  when  light 
^va-  if!  voLTiK  .  WIm!  In  !n;t'\'  w(»tt  his  embroidered  toga, 
and   !]i>  nnliiarx    i.iH.t.,  ;in<i  wKiir  K'^^gings  about  the  city,  he 

.nnty".     As  it  was  improper  to  go 
lu  \UcU  iong-sleeved  (jues, 


fau<(Mi  cniniiH'i 


It   f i 


H)!i      h!- 


It ' 


\\!tt!()i!t   a   tunic 

or   uiiu-ually   wide   t(>^n<' 

up''.        LllCllllu:-    (»ncf    ])!!Ill-!M'(i    -nn.)-     -nlMicf-    h,      !ii;;ij'i_:     f!ir!!i 

d\'^  a  trench  in  l]\v  prc-cncc  of  ilir  ir^i  oT  tiic  arm;    un-ird.-d*'^. 
In    (  "ieero'-^    au'e    -fiaxinu'    \\a<    L^eiicra!.      'I'litrrt'oTv-    beard--, 


I  n  ( 


especially    when    i'anrily    {riniuif.l,    uci-r 
allowed  to  irrow   h)nu-,  were  conddcrrd  -hca  nh. 


a  1 . 1 1     I  i 
1  haicr  the 


-'  Plut.  (J.  U.  vi  :  1 :  Vlxny.  V.  If.  9.  1J7:  I'l  it.  Sulla.  0  !  Tlor.  Sat.  1.  5,  35  ff. 
Tho  th('()r\'  ha.-  t)fcn  adxaii't-'l  t'd.-it  ifi.  ',;ya  praetcxtn,  also  worn  I';/  rliiiarcn, 
erubodiod  r(>lii:;ioiis  ^iirmlii-auce.      (Wirdf  F^'wI.t.  (~'\.  }\'\.  l^nc.  pp    .;i7   :;i':i.") 

^'  Pliny,  -V.  //.  'C  t^;  l{^>r.  Snl.   I,  ti,  J7.      l-.,r  ,;.  t::il,  a  ,ii^r..-H.  .a  see  ^^Iu!•i!: 

■''  F.   l;-J,  (i\    1.  sprint.  (•.!!..  M.n.    11      1 

^'  .U^    1,     IS,    0.  66  Jlji^i^   ,,,    _>. 

5^  Plut.  Crass.  2.-!;   1.  •-  ,1'/.    1.    Is,  fV  2.  :^   1. 

^Un  Cat.  2,  10.  22;  CW'l!.  t;  .7).  12;  Hur.  /:"/;.>,/.  },  7  Ic  A/-.  1,  Is,  ;^o. 
Horace  gives  us  some  {)ictur(\s  of  peojjle  who  were  the  .-ui'jrcr-  of  ridimlr  lifr;iu,-e 
of  their  dress,  in  the  fickle  Priscus,  wlio  changed  his  costume  several  time<  the 
same  day  (Sat.  2,  7,  S-IO);  th»»  fop  who  added  to  ordinary  clothimi  "  .-t(Hkinirs, 
an  elbow  pillow,  and  a  muffler"  (Sat.  2,  ;>,  27)1);  the  rustic  who  was  mark«Ml  hy 
the  cut  of  his  hair,  his  ill-setting  gown,  and  his  loosely-fif  tintr  shoe-  [Sat.  1 .  a,  aO) ; 
and  the  poor  man  whose  poverty  was  revealed  by  his  >ha!)l)y  tunic  i  A'/'.  1.  1, 
94-96;  cf.  Ep.  1,  18.  7). 

^*  pro  Cluent.  40,  111;   FroiM-rt.  r,,  2,  3S.  6i  in  Cat.  2.  10;   Att.  1.  11.  7,. 

60  Plut.  Lucull.  15,  8.  t-:  j,rn  C:iil.  1  1,  ;;a;   lav.  27,  .n. 


^        4 


Y 


>  •.* 


} 


I  •(   i'n 


he   \\(».-e,^'' 


latter  were  an  appropriate  sign  of  mourning,  in  which  the  hair 
of  the  head  was  also  left  uncut^.  The  mourning  garb,  a 
dark  or  black  robe,  was  proper  in  time  of  death  or  other 
sorrow  which  might  affect  oneself  or  friends^S  including  such 
occasions  as  trials  in  court^^  or  defeat  in  election^^  At  the 
time  of  Cicero's  banishment  twenty  thousand  were  said  to 
have  shown  their  sympathy  in  this  way^^.  After  Pharsalus 
Pompey  wore,  until  the  time  of  his  death,  such  garments  as 
told  of  his  grief  in  defeat®^. 

The  Roman  gentlewoman  of  this  period  had  not  attained 
the  same  liberty  in  style  of  dress  which  she  enjoyed  m  ua  r 
matters;  for  here  propriety  drew  close  Hues  ;d)<  an  hn  ( 
says  that  Clodia  revealed  her  character  bv  what 
and  even  in  Horace's  linM^,  nniy  -hives  and  cuurie^aus  iii:,- 
ren-ard.  d  ^.an.  imMh-  n;  drrss'^  dldsrecaih-  tliecaseof  Oai'is 
^iida<aa  (.ndi;-,  w'm.  laii  away  lii-  w  dV  h.f  appcarlnLr  on  the 
stivri  V,  ithout  a  he;n!-<<.\t^rin-'\  as  iho  Id. man:-  t!ion-ht  this 
iiii|a-MT.cr  lur  woiiieii  lo  do,  except  a-  a  -i^ai  of  naauann:^"^. 

B".    h"\  !  i:!:t\i\mk\t  mf  Ot^f.sts 

1.  Visits 

bo<ial  inter*  nui--o  hctwcci!  the  IJoinaii^  of  rieero's  ac:e  was 
niarkr.l  \^\  n  Lrcncral  ho-pitality  in  their  honi(>s.  There  is  some 
indication  thiat  -ue.-t-fricnd.ship  al.>o  carried  witli  it  the  (rreek 

interpretation    of    a  pledge    of    ^ood  faith ''^  and 
Roman  .         ,.  .  -,        •   ,        , 

Hospitality     ^^'^''^"^  protection  ior  the  guest '^  with  a  heredi- 
tary v\\i\\i  of  hosj)iiinrii  for  individuals  as  well  as 
for  states".     The  formal  sign  of  such  a  compact  between  host 

^'  Pint.  Cato  Min.  o:^  1. 

'*  .1/^  a.  i.y  .y  /■'.  :,,  i,  2;  it,  :?,  2;  Fr.  2,  ;\.  i. 

'^I'l^it.  C,c.  \).  1.  71  y.^i    Max.  6,  3,  10. 

"  Plut.  C<ii<>  Mm.  .■>().  1.  :-'  Plut.  Q.  R.  14. 

«■  Plut.  Cir.  ;•!()  4;  Plut.  Crass.  Vi.  o.       ■?•  Att.:i,  l.->,  7:  .see  Smith:  hospitium. 

"  ''l^'^-  P''r"P-  72,  2;  7:-!,  4.  ■*  Cell,  5,  13,  5;  in  Caecil.  20,  67. 

^'  pn,  Cad.  20,  4!1.  v.  Caes.  B.  C.  2,  25,  4:  o.  50,  3. 

'^'  ll:)r.  Sat.  1,  2,  100  fT. 


30 

and  guest  was  the  clasj)ing  of  piirht  hand-'*',  a  custom  so  old  as 
to  be  associated  with  the  legenchiry  fricnddiip  cstahh>hc(i  hr- 
tween  the  founders  of  the  Latin  race,  Aenea>  and  Latinu^''. 
Thus  Roman  hospitahty  was  tracHtional. 

Cicero's  many  houses  were  always  (.{)t'n  to  hi>  fri(>nd-,  a 
small  coterie  of  whom  generally  surrounded  him,  whctjicr  lie 
happened  to  he  in  his  villa  at  I*uetoli'\  or  in  the  ciijox  nicnt  of 
quiet  at  Tusculum"'.  Of  Lyso,  a  physician  from  Patrae.  \w 
once  said:  "He  almost  lived  in  my  house  in  Komcfora  \-car"^", 
as  he  might  also  have  said  of  Dolahella,  \\\\n>v  Iciigthx  visits 
at  Tusculum  often  interfered  with  Ciccn.'s  literary  work^'. 
Mention  has  already  heen  made  of  the  fact  tliat  the  Stoic 
philosopher,  Diodotus,  made  his  home  with  Cicero  duriii<^ 
many  years^"-. 

We  have  many  references  also  to  the  hospitality  of  Atticii^. 
In  his  home  Cicero  first  took  refuge  after  Tiillia'>  death,  when 
sad  memories  haunted  liis  own  fireside^',  and  to  thi>  friend  he 
often  went  before  returning  to  one  of  his  own  house,  after  a 
journey^^  It  was  not  luuisual,  it  seems,  thu>  to  acee[)t  an 
invitation  to  visit  a  friend  first  after  an  absence  from  home'\ 
Since  the  wealthy  Roman  conunonly  owned  more  than  one 
residence''\  he  sometimes  turned  over  one  of  them  to  a  friend 
temporarily  for  his  own  use"'  or  for  the  entertainment  of 
guests^^  Cicero  gave  his  villa  at  Puteoli  to  Atticu.V  wife  U^r 
such  visits,  and  provided  it  with  the  servants  necessary  for 
her  comfort*^^;  the  one  at  Astura,  too,  he  otfered  to  Brutus  to 
occupy  as  long  as  he  wished'^  and  he  himself  imcv  })orrowed 
the  villa  of  his  son-in-law.  Oassipes,  for  the  purpose  cf  enter- 
taining some  friends  there".     The  exchange  of  free  hospitality 


■«  Tacit.  Hist.  1,  54. 

"■  Liv.  1,  1.  s. 

'^  Att.  14,  11,  2;  14,  _U.  4. 

".4//.  13,  9.  1. 

«oF.  13.  19.  1. 

»i  Att.  13,  45,  2. 

^^-  Acad.  2.  3t).  115.     (Cf.  p.  s.) 

^^  Att.  12,  IG. 


^'  Att.  4.  5.  3. 

'^  /•'.  9.  19.  1. 

^'^  }•".  9,   I,  2. 

''■  Att.  12.  :U].  2. 

■''^  /•>.  2,  S.  3. 

^'-4//.  14,  15,  4;  14.  10.  1. 

8^  .4/;.  15.  3.  2. 

''  F.  1,  9,  2U. 


\ 


31 


between  relatixcs  is  illustrated  by  the  irregularity  with  which 
( 'ieero's  son  and  ne])hew  lived  either  in  the  home  of  their 
uncle  or  in  that  of  their  father''-. 

1  he  absence  of  comfortable  inns  for  the  accommodation  of 
tra\ cler-'''  made  it  almost  necessarx'  to  own  lodges  along  the 
public  highways'",  and  these  abo  they  placed  at  the  disposal 
of   their    friends'''.     Travelers    were   the    quests,    too,    of   any 
ac(}uaintances  who  might  live  along  their  route■*^  so  that  by 
spending  each  night  at  the  home  of  a  dill'crent  ])erson"',  they 
made  the  jonrney  a  succession  of  \isits''\  though  sometimes 
the  host  himself  might  not  be  at  home''',      dcero  repeatedly 
enjoyed    such    liospitalitx     from    Atticus    on    his    iournevs    to 
(ireece;  at     ('(.reyra    and    Sybota    elaborate    entertainment, 
prepared  by  his  friend's  freedmen,  awaited  him^^*^  while  the 
house   in    Mpirus    was   open    as   a    resting   place   on    the   long 
j(*urney"",  or  as  a  refuge  in  exile'"-.     The  banished  orator  wa3 
indei)ted  to  other  friends  for  the  same  kindness'"^  even  though 
by    sheltering    him    they    exposed    themselves    to    danger^^^ 
With  (Mpial  generosity  he,  too,  entertained  (^u'io,  though  the 
latter  was  on  his  wa\-  to  Sicily  as  Caesar's  rej)resentative^^^. 
Plutarch    record>    that    Crassu^,    wlio    kept    oj)en    house    for 
strangers,    won    many   friends    by   his   kind   but    simj)le   hos- 
pitality"''. 

The  first  formalit\-  in  connection  with  the  entertainment  of 
a  guest  was  the  invitation  from  Ids  host.  The  numerous  ex- 
amples found  in  Cicero's  correspondence  further  illustrate  the 

^'  /•>.  2,  S,  1 ;  Att.  4.  9,  2. 

^''  Horace,  in  his  amusiim  description  of  a  journc\-  to  Jirundisiunj,  has  intro- 
<luc<d  us  to  the  (li>con)f(;rts  of  th<'  ordinary  public  inn.  (Sat.  1.  5,  2-lOj.  Cf. 
("ic.  <l,  Sm.  2.3,  s4.      llur.  Ep'u-^t.  1,  11,  11. 


94 


F.  7.  23,  3. 


^-  F.  !»,  (1,  2. 

»'  Att.  5,  2,    1  ;   14.   Ui,   1. 

*■  .4//.  4,  <l,  2. 

^^  Att.  12,  34,  1. 

«»  Att.   10,  2.  1;  10,  (i,  1. 

'^•'^-4//.  5,  9,  1. 


>"'  .4//.  10,  7.  3. 

'"'^  Att.  3.  7,  1;  3,  15,  6;  3,  19,  1. 

''^  F.  14.  4,  2. 

1"^  Att.  3,  4. 

1"^  .4/^  10.  7,  3. 

^ceplut.  Crass.  3,  1. 


/ 


(\ 


32 

Formalities  important  part  which  hospitaHty  phtyed  in  the 
between  Host  social  Hfe  of  that  day.  An  invitation  to  visit  or 
and  Guest  ^^^^^^  sometimes  inchided  tlie  privik\<:c  of  [)rinirinur 
an  entire  party  of  friends  or  travehn^i:  companions'"",  i^'u-vvo 
often  insisted  that  Atticns  hrini:  his  wife  with  him'"\  and  when 
he  wanted  to  empliasize  her  weh-ome  he  achh-d :  '•  Tnlha  wi^jn^s 
to  have  her."^^-'  His  nnmerons  villas  nuulv  it  {)os>ihle  for 
him  to  offer  his  i^uiests  a  choice  of  tlie  i)hicr  at  whicli  they  pre- 
ferred to  he  entertained"".  lie  took  no  ollenM',  thercfor<\ 
when  Atticns  dechncd  to  accept  hi>  in\itation  to  a  -ea.M(h'"' 
or  a  conntry  resick'nce"-,  and  acconhndy  he  would  a>k  him 
to  visit  at  these  places  only  as  a  pergonal  faxor-'. 

There  were  circum->tance>,  moreover,  which  placed  tlH>  ho.t 

under  obli^ration    to   his   i^ue^t    for   the    vi>it.      For   in>tanee, 

propriety  denied  (^ra>-us  the  ri.uht  to  expect  a  Ion-  vi^it  fn.ni 

a  man  of  Scaevoki's  aire  and  honor>=^',  althou-h  even  Cicero 

felt  complimented  by  Cra-sns'  conn'nir  to  dine  without  >pe(  i;il 

invitation"'.      It  is  evident,  then,  th:it  a  i^uot  came  >ometin!cs 

self-invited,  either  hecjiuse  this   {)rivilei:e  wa<   warranted    by 

lntlmacy"^  c)r  because  his  position  made  >nch  an  inference  of 

friendship  a  compliment  to  hi.>  host"",  a>  when    roni|)cy  and 

Cicero,  meeting  Lucullu>  in  the  Forum,  otfered  to  dine  with 

him"\     The  traveler,  too,  before  >tartin<:  on  a  journey,  would 

ask  permission  of  his  friends  to  :>to|)  at  their  villa>  or  lodges 

on  his  route"'\ 

\\hether  invited  or  not.  a  guest  wa>  expected  to  -ixt'  j)re- 
viotis  announcement  r.f  his  arrivah-",  a  courte^v  which  was 
frequently  observed  even  before  pa\ing  a  call'-k  Such  fore- 
thought as  to  the  opportunene.>^  of  one's  coming  made  (^icero 


^'''  AU.  4.  12.  1;  v.],  47\  2:  11.  _',  4. 

1'-^  .4^/.  4.  4",  2. 

»^o  .4^/.  2.  S.  2. 

»"  -4^/.  2.  IG.  4. 

"-  Att.  2.  11.  2. 

>'^  Att.  2.  4.  6. 

"^  Att.  4,  IG,  3. 


1.  :>.  2<   30:  TTor.  S^f.  2.  s.  21  fT. 
'■'  F.   1.  l»,  20. 

'•''  -4^/.  ;-i.  21),  1. 

'•'  F.  1>.  1.  2. 

''■'  Plut.  LucuH.  41.  4. 

'••^  ,1/^  i;-!,  .-)0,  -,. 

'-  F.  0.   19,  2. 

'-'  Att.  10.  4.  S:  F.  7.  4,  1. 


*  4 


>.n 


^ 


33 


hesitate  to  arrive  at  ]\)m])ey's  villa  on  the  day  of  the  Compi- 
tali  (I,  lot  he  interfere  with  the  household  celebration  of  the 
festi\ak"-.  He  once  complained  that  \'arr()  with  a  large 
compan\'  stopped  for  dinner  without  having  notified  him^-'l 
The  ancient  lio>t  was  most  considerate  of  his  guest's  physical 
comfort'-',  and  indeed  })rovided  one  courtesy  which  the 
modern  Roman  i>  lc>s  read\-  to  offer  -a  hot  bath  upon  arrival 
after  a  journey^-*.  \\\v\\  for  dinner  irue-ts  it  was  customarv 
lo  pro\ide  wat(M-  for  the  hands  and  feet^'-''.  If  tlu^  visitor 
>utlercd  from  the  chill  of  morning  hours,  there  was  a  fire 
kindled  for  hinc-'.  and  if  he  wa>  staxing  with  an  intimate 
friend,  the  gue-t  did  not  hesitate  to  ask  for  such  attiMitions^-^ 
nor  to  >ugge^t,  perhap-  jokingly,  the  sort  of  food  he  expected^'-''. 

'2.   Dinners 

.Since  the  earlie-t  recf)rd>  of  ci\ili/ation.  man's  social  pleas- 

ure<  lia\  e  centercil  about  the  sharing  of  food  and  drink  with 

hi>  fellows.     The  .v//////^o,v//////  of  the  (Greeks,  which  signified  l)y 

its  name  "a   drinking  together",  as   well  as  the  ('(nirir'nnn  of 

the  llomaiis  with  its  connotation  of  "living  to- 
Formal  ,       ..,  ,i  I  ,.  , 
and  Informal  •^'''^''*'^'     ''  ^^'^'^"^^  the  prototyjjcs   of    our  modern 

"dinner-part\' ",  and  were  j)erhaps  then,  as  now, 
the  chief  social  function.  A  i:iie>t  was  invited  to  diimer  merelv 
for  the  plea-urc  of  his  company^''k  (^r  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing important  matters  with  him''^-,  or  perhaps  as  a  courtesy  to 
some  common  friend'  l  Cicero  once  complained  of  being  bored 
by  the  rejx'ated  invitations  to  dine  with  a  man  whose  claim 
up(tn  him  was  the  common  friendsliip  of  Trebatius''^*. 

Persons  on  terms  of  intimacy  dined  quite  informally  with 
each  other,     ("icero  wrote  to  Paetus,  who  was  ill  with  gout: 

'■'  Att.  7,  7.  ;•;.  ■^-  Fr.  2,  S,  2. 

'-'-1^^  1-^.  ;-!;^.  4.  ^-■'  Att.  2,  3.  3;F.  9,  5.  3. 

'-^  Plain.  Ptrs.  .').  2,   14:  Il.jr.  Sat.  1.  4.  ss. 

'''  -1^^  1-,  1.  '■^.  -'  Fr.  2.  G,  2;  Att.  2,  2,  3. 

'-"  F.  9,  IG,  0.  is-'  /''.  1,  2,  3. 

^-'  F.  9,  20,   1 :  9,   l'.»,  2.  i3i  f,\  J    9_  ;^_ 

^^^  de  Stn.  12,  45;  /•'.  '.I  24.  2   3.  '^^  F.  7,  IG,  2. 


34 

"I  shall  come  to  see  yo„  and  takr  ,lin,UT,  A.r  I  ,lon't  suppose 
you  have  a  cook  who  is  souty  to,,--.  II,.  „„.„tio„e,l  on,-,. 
that  (^uintns  the  youn,:er  had  come  in  to  .linn,.,-  nn,.xp,Tt,-,liv 
because  h.s  mother  was  away  from  h„nu.'-,  just  as  Cu-rvo 
h.mselt    would    sometinuvs   ,li„e   at    ins    s„n-in-law\   cnntrv 

home,  to  avoid  I.eim,'  "in  town"  tor  a  se.. f  ,h,.  „.nat,.'^^ 

buch  a  d.nner  ^ucs.  as  Cicero  n.u.t  have  iM-.-n  in  ,„n.tant 
deman,P\     Wherever    he    happe„,.,l    to    I,.-,    h,.    ha,!    ur.un 

invitations   Irom   the   people  „f   the   ,u.io-l,l,„rh 1'  '.   an,|   a't 

iJome  he  found  it  necessary,  for  ,„,li,,v-.  ...d<,.,  ,.,  1„.  ,,,,..,■„, 
at  the  dinners  of  those  in  p,.wer"',  in,.|,„li„o-  ,!„,.,.  .,r  ,|„. 
Dictator  himself".  We  cannot  snpp,.se  that  h,.  alwa^..  f„un,l 
the  company  „i,  such  occasions  entirel.x  ,-,,ni:,'nial^'-'.   ' 

The  attenti,m  of  the  host  at  ,!inner  inii^t   hiM  I Iven  t., 

the  correct  placiuK  of  his  ,n,ests,whos,Mn,n,l,erpn,perlvran..v,l 
from  three  to  nine,  hepniii,,..  as  Varro  .ai,l,  with  ,h,MnHni„r 
ot  the  Graces,  and  limitcl  l,y  that  ,,f  tli,'  .Mu>,.Ji^;  f,,r  ,,nlv 
the  vulgar  crowdcl  in,)re  tlian  thiv,.    np,.n    nn,- 
conch"'.     <"onventi,.iials,,hx,M|a,!,.hnit,.,,n|,.r,,f 
precedence  in  places  of  honor.     Th<.  mi,l,lh.  ,.„u,h  wa,  ,•,..,,■^  ,-,1 
ior  d.stinj:u,shed  suests"',  with,  the  low,..t  pla,v  np„n  i,    /;.„. 
in   medio,  as   chief   honor.     This   was   n.-xt   al„u,.   th,.   ho.t 
who  with  his  family  occupied  the  thinl  c,,u,-!i'»'       If  tli,.  "iicst 
of  honor  hroufrht  others  of  hi.  own  >elc,ti„n.  a.  !„■  wa^  of„.n 
invited  to  <Io.  they  reclincl  on  the  ,-„u,-h  witli  him"'       N„n,- 
times  the  privile^^e  of  choosing  oik-'s   p„.i,i„„   at   tal,!,-   was 
given   \  an.l  the  frequent  reference,  t,,  th,.  pla,-in-  ,,f  .-n,.,t. 


Table  Etiquette 


"'/•'.  fl,  2:i.  1. 

"'  Fr.  :i.   1,   1(). 

'"-1".  t,  12,  1, 

'"  F.  i>.  26.  2. 

"'All.  14,  12,  :i:  If,.  1,  1, 


"    /■'.  '.'.  7.  1. 

'"  Ml.  ii').  Hi',  1. 

"-  I-'.  '■'•.  ..  2. 

"■'  (iflL  I!.  11.  2. 

'"  m  /'„■„.,.  .'7,  i;7;  (i,,,-,  .s,,^    ,     |^,;^ 


'"  Plut.  firu/.  :i!,  t.       (•!    \f.,r,i     P,      in.    -uu,  t         , 

'"Pint.  0,/ae,,(.  Connr.  1.  :?.  n'  //,;,;   -   ,-    ■,    ii        .•  .     , 

■  '  Piut.  Calo  M,n.  ,7.  3.  I„  M.nu  V.  Ts.  :i , .  „„.  .„ost  ,s  ,„M  ..^..^..^.j 
«hat  place  he  .,  ,o  occup.v  on  ,h.^  ,„7,„,/,„„,  „„,  ,,^,..1  wl.a,  „■„„„„  ,,„  j,...„., 
to  have  next  above  him.  ui.irta 


I 


I, 


f 


35 

iiidicatc  its  important  .Mirnifi(•an('e^^^  Xo  one  was  allowed 
to  rcvVuw  ahove  xlw  rr.r  sacrificed iis'''^  and  only  he  had  a  place 
above  X\w  j!<i/!M,i  J)i(ilt\''''\  The  courteous  ho.st  waited  until 
all  the  iiuests  wc>re  in  their  i)laces  })efore  takini,^  his  own'"'-. 

Durini:  the  dinner,  iruest-  were  expected  to  lay  aside  their 
t(),uas  and  -iiocs  and  to  wear  ,sin(hils'-"\  whieh  they  hroui^dit 
with  them,  if  they  (hd  not  come  in  a  litteH"''.  Plutarch  men- 
tion- a-^  proof  of  the  rudeness  of  Demetrius,  Pom])ey's  freed- 
man.  that  he  kept  lii>  to,<:a  })uhe(l  over  liis  ears  at  table'"'.  It 
wa>  cu-ti.marx   al-o  to  loosen  the  tunic  while  reel inim,^'"'^ 

1  )e>cnptioii-s  of  bad  tabh>  manners  condemn  greediness  and 
••tien-i\c  prr..onal  habits  of  catin.ir'"'' ;  but  the  thrifty  farmer 
who  >ii\vi\  >vvi\>  in  the  fold  of  his  cloak  at  dessert  seemed  not 
to  fia\«'  diockcd  a  xounir  aristocrat  hke  Cicero's  son^''l  It  is 
nitcrc-tniL:  t(»  notice  what  we  shouhl  consider  extraordinary 
frcc(h.m  on  the  jtart  of  !)oth  .<;uc>t  and  ho.^t  in  attending-  to 
matter-  of  pcr-onal  int(M-e,>t  <bn-inir  a  dinner.  Wliilc  at  table 
th(y  rcceiwd  htter^'"',  which  they  answered  between 
coiirM-''  ',  cither  ]>\  (hctation"'  or  by  scribl)lin,ir  o{f  a  roui^di 
dnift  for  an  amaiuicn.^is  to  copy  later'''-,  as  was  (/aesar's 
cu-tonc-'. 

Whatever  other  form  of  amusemc^nt  the  host  provided  for  his 
.irue.-t-.  con\ creation  ])roperl\-  formed  the  chief  means  of  enter- 
tainment at  (h'nncr'''=.  It  assumed  a  somewhat  formal  charac- 
ter (hn-inix  the  drinkin,!,^  of  wine  at  the  close  of  the 
meab  under  the  (lirection  of  the  arbiter  bibend?^'\ 
ho   wa>  often   chosen  not    by  courtesy,  but   by  lot'^^     The 


Amusements 


w 


'^'  Cell.  10,  15,  21. 
'•■■  Plut.  Pomp.  40,  2. 


^"/•'.  '.*,  -Mi,    1. 

>"8erv.  A,  It.  2.  2. 

'^^rir.  I'h^l.  2.  ;:(i.  7.1:  Crll.  i;^,  22.  1:  Phit.  Quarst.  Connv.  7,  h,  4. 

^-Mfor.   /■.'//.   1,   i;{,    1.-,.  lif  y_  10,32,;^. 

»"riin.  r.>>nj).  Id,  J. 

"'  llor.  .N,;/.   !,  Ii.  u_'.      Cf.  Lvician  Tlmon  'A. 

"»/•'.   ni.  _>l.  7.  ^^^Fr.'A,  1,  19. 

"»/•'.    '.'.    7,    1  ;    .1//.   M,    S,    1.  K2  y    ,,_   2(),    1. 

'''■■^^^'   1^'  "•   i    -■  >'M>lut'.CW.'G3:2. 

^"  <!'  >',',.  i:;,   1.").  Plut.  Qii>i>.^f.  Cofiiu-.  7,  s,  4,  (12j. 

'''  '^'  *^"'-  ^  ^'  ^•'-      ^"i"-  "^   ^'"-r.  5,  2S.  i«  ll„r.  Od.  1,  4,  IS;  2,  7,  25. 


36 

first  occupant  of  the  first  couch  began  the  discussion^^' ,  which 
might  very  properly  include  professional  and  political  sub- 
jects^^l  The  dinner  party  was  avowedly  an  occasion  for 
gathering  information^^^  which  might  be  got  from  intoxicated 
guests,  if  not  from  sober  ones^"°,  though  Horace  said  tliat  no 
gentleman  would  take  such  an  advantage^''. 

In  entertaining  persons  of  culture  tlie  host  often  provided 
for  his  dinner  guests  a  reading  by  a  trained  slave^"'-,  from  some 
new^  literary  work.  Atticus  thus  added  to  tlu^  charm  of  his 
social  functions;  for  his  literary  friends  were  phrased  to  make 
their  first  public  appearance  in  his  triclinium^'''  before  an 
exclusive  and  friendly  company.  This  custom  continued  jfi 
Pliny's  time^^^  but  gradually  the  presence  of  nnisician.s  and  of 
dancers  characterized  the  fashionable  banquet'' '. 

Even  in  the  days  of  Cato  the  Censor  sim[)licity  had  ceased 
to  be  a  marked  feature  of  a  Roman  dinner  i)arty.  Vor  he  reefers 
to  his  own  wild  dissipation  in  ''early  banquets"'"*',  and  as  the 

Menu  "^^"^^  ^'^^'^^'  "^^^^^'  t'laborate,  the  proper  hour  of 
dining  was  moved  forward  in  the  da\'".  Cicero 
blamed  Epicureanism  for  the  demand  for  rare  dislics  and  great 
variety^"^;  but  whatever  the  cause,  fashion  adoi)te(l  the  result. 
and  we  find  the  orator  excusing  himself  for  taking  [)art  in  >uefi 
elaborate  dinners,  because  he  "did  not  wish  to  'd\)\^vdv  chur- 
lish "^'^  Lucullus,  who  was  famed  for  the  extraordinary  menu 
and  elegant  service  of  his  dinners,  was  so  careful  to  keep  \\\) 
his  reputation,  that  even  when  (^icero  and  Pomjxy  tried  to 
surprise  him,  they  found  him  ready  to  set  a  sumptuous  re[)ast 
before  them''^^.     \'arro  commented   on   the  varietv   of  foods 


16'  de  Sen.  14.  4(5. 

»««F.  7,  22,  1;  .1^/.  2,  18.  2. 

i«»  Att.  4.  8^  4. 

J'OF.O,  17,  1.      CL  llor.h-p.  1,  Is.  .'is. 

i"i  Hor.  Sat.  1,  4,  88-90. 

^'2.-1^/.  1,  12,  4. 


-3  -1//.  ir...s.  1;  ir,,  2,r,;  x,.p.  Att.  n.  i 

'■^  Pliny    Ei>.  1,  I.",.  2. 

'■''  P'i<l. ;  Hor.  Kp.  2.  2,  !). 
''^^  (h   S,n.   14.  4t). 

'■"  Atf.  H,  1,  ;-!:  ',»,  i;-;,  c. 
'"'  /-'.  '.».  20.  2;  1.").  Is,  1. 


1^9  F.  9,  26.  4.  Note  hero  the  reference  to  (';iesar\s  attenii)t  to  limit  !-urh 
elaborate  menus  by  his  .sumptuary  law.     Sm-t.  J}d.   V-\.     Cf.  Dio  4;^.  2o. 

ISO  Plut.  Lucull.  40;  41,  4-5.  The  .store  that  was  .^et  on  the  mere  expensive- 
ness  of  a  meal  in  fashionable  society  is  indicated  by  such  stories  as  appear  in 
Hor.  Sat.  2,  3,  239.  and  Plinv,  A'.  //.  9.  119. 


i 


k 


> 


37 


used  in  his  time^"^',  and  later  writers  seemed  to  think  it  a  sub- 
ject worthy  of  their  attention'^'-. 


Calls 


Salutatio 


The  cu.stom  of  calling  on  friends  or  acquaintances  also 
formed  a  prominent  feature  of  Koinan  social  life.  Such  a  brief 
visit  was  not  so  mucli  an  occasion  for  the  display  of  hos- 
pitality by  the  host  as  it  was  a  courteous  attention  from  his 
guest' ^l  The  highest  development  of  the  call 
as  a  social  function  we  find  in  the  sahdaiio,  a 
morning  rece])tion,  to  which  the  friends  and  clients  of  a  promi- 
nent man  came  to  pay  him  their  respects'^".  The  early  hour 
at  which  this  social  diit\-  was  performed,  was  in  itself  a  com- 
])ilment  to  the  host,  if  not  a  consideration  for  his  comfort. 
Thus  a  candidate  for  office  might  feel  encouraged  if  his  house 
was  filled  with  callers  at  daybreak'''"^  and  Cicero  had  reason  to 
rejoice  when  the  vestibule  of  his  enemy,  Clodius,  was  still 
deserted  at  three  o'clock  on  a  November  morning'''^.  Once 
when  he  was  called  awav  from  his  letter-writinii:  bv  the  arrival 
of  his  morning  guests,  he  hastily  added:  "It  is  growing  light 
and  the  crowd  is  pushing  in'^'".  Tnder  the  Empire  when 
the  salutatio  was  attended  bv  clients  who  lived  on  the  bountv 
of  their  patrons,  Martial  tells  of  the  sleep  they  lost  in  order 
to  make  their  rounds  of  morning  calls  before  daybreak^^*^. 

The  real  significance  of  the  salutatio,  however,  lav  in  the 
number  that  attend(Mi  it'^''.  Even  after  Cicero  was  an  ex- 
consul  he  still  measured  his  influence^  bv  the  fact  that  his 
"home  was  as  crowded  as  the  Forum  "''^",  while  Appius  might 
well  realize  his  (h)wnfall  from  his  empty  house^^^  In  these 
throngs  which  attended  the  morning  levee  were  manv  of  the 
\'ulgar  class,  sometimes   "only  a  few   who  were  congenial", 


1^=  Cell.  <i:  10. 

J^'-  Hor.  Sat.  2,  s.  r,  {T. :  .Juv.  1,  140;  Mart.  F>k.  13. 

'''  Fr.  2,  4.  (i. 

^''  F.  7,  2s,  2;  Att.  10.  10.  4. 

>^'  d>   Ptt.  Cnns.  12,  4 'J;   13.  ,')(). 

1^'  Att.  4.  3.  :>. 


'^' .4/^  G,  2,  10. 
'^^  Mart.   10,   10. 
183  Plut.  Cir.  8,  3. 
'90  AU.  12,  23,  1. 
1^1  Fr.  2,  10(12),  5. 


38 


as  Cicero  wrote  of  his^'^-.  However,  men  of  such  proniiiieiice 
as  he  received  also  many  persons  of  hiij^h  rank.  On  one  occa- 
sion after  this  mornini^  function  dcero  wrote:  "There  were 
many  loyalists,  who  were  sad  enouirh,  and  man\  exultant 
victors,  followers  of  the  Dictator,  who  were  j)olite  and  ail'cc- 
tionate  in  their  attentions"^''-.  After  ('ae>ar"s  death  hi- 
devoted  friend  Matins  was  frequently  among  tho>e  wiio  went 
to  pay  their  respects  to  Anton\'". 

The  courtesy  of  a  host  in  receivini:  his  callers  atlVcted  hi- 
popularity^'-^'\      (^icero  was  especially  can^ful  to  wch-onie  them 
in  person  durino-  his  irox-crnorship  of  Ciheia'^      "I1i(y  nevt-r 
found  him  in   hcd."  >ay>   Plutarch,   hut   -tandini:  or  v.alkin- 
before    his    door"'''".     The    (^atihnarian     con-pirator-.    \\\\i> 
planned  to  call  so  early  that  he  would  -till  he  in  hi-  chamber, 
expected,  we  remember,  to  be  receixcd   !)y  him  there,  when^ 
it  would  be  easy  to  murder  him'''\     ("icero  criticize(l  the  rude- 
ness of  Antony,  who  once  slej.t  till  nine  o'clock  when  a  delcira- 
tion  of  country  peoph^  was  callini:  at   hi-   \illa   near  Cumae, 
and  even  then  sent  out  word  that  they  -hould  r(>turn  the  next 
day^''''.     Since  \isitors  waited  in  the  \-e-tibule  until  tlie\   were 
admitted  to  the  r/ //*/// ///-"",  the  courteous  ho-t  would  be  readv 
to  receive  them  promptly-^",  and  not  subject  them  to  the  di-- 
comfort  and  humiliation  of  a  lomr  wait  there,  as  ('ae-ar  often 
did,    even    when    Cicero    was    anion--    his    caller--"'.     At    the 
^"iidutatio  we  note  that  it  was  })roper  for  the  ho.-t  to  L,n\-e  his 
attention  to  such  matters  as  letter-writinir  in  the  presence  of 
his  <,'uests'-^'\  thou<,di  he  miu-ht  rcrcnt  the  fact  that  one  gue.-t 
called  to  see  another  rather  than  him.-elf'-"*. 


1^''  Aft.  i\,  2.  .".. 
'^'  IMut.  c:,-.  ;•!(•,.  2. 

'^^  ni  Cat.    !,    1:   i'lut.  C'r.    U\,    1. 


'^-F.  .5.  21,  1;  Att.  1,  is.  1. 

'"  F.  [),  20,  :l 

'''  F.  11,  2,s,  7. 

''•'^'/r  I\t.  Cons.  11.  41. 

'''Att.  10,  i;:!,  1.  ('f.  Senora's  picture  of  the  in.lifTcn-nt  lu»>t  -'awakenrd 
from  sleep,  greetint:  his  callers  with  a  haughty  ki^<.  and  inuttenn-  their  names." 
(de  Brev.  Vit.  14.  4.) 

^"HJell.  IG.  5.  0.  803,,,/  jirut.  2.  4.  1.  4   ti. 

*"'  ^-1</.  0,  2,  5.  204  .1^/    1,-,    !,-_  _,_ 

20- F.  G,  14,  2;.l/^  14,  1,  2. 


I 


f 


\jL. 


39 

In  the  matter  of  individual  calls  much  formality  was  ob- 
served, and  their  omission  n:ave  offense.  Thus  when  (^lesar's 
mo.-t    intimate  friend,    Ilirtius,   stoj)ped   near  I'ompey's  villa 

T  ^-  -^     ,      without  callinij:  upon  tlu^  latter,  it  indicated  an 
Inaividual  , 

Calls  «'>tran,«icment    between    Pompey   and    (^iesar-^**\ 

When  cticpictte  required  that  Ignitus,  whose 
oflicial  rank  was  lower,  should  call  upon  dcero'-^^  the  orator 
ollered  to  return  to  hi-  city  home  to  spare  Brutus  a  trip  to 
l^isculum-"'.  Whether  in  Pome  or  at  one  of  his  suburban 
villa-.  ( 'icero  was  coii-tantly  honored  by  calls  from  people  only 
h--  di-tin-ui'.hed  than  h!mself-'"\  and  in  the  case  of  those  of 
ecjual  rank,  such  as  Ponipiw,  he  was  ])romi)t  in  returnin^ir  the 
eonrte^x-"'.  lie  and  Atticus  thou^irht  it  im])ortant  th;it  they 
should  iro  to  see  \'arro  imuKMliatcly  after  his  return  from  a 
journey-'".  Accordini:  to  Plutarch,  Cato,  when  a  small  l)()y, 
was  taken  by  his  pedao;()<,ruc,  Sarpcdon,  to  j)av  his  re-i)ccts  to 
Sulla-''-. 

Ot  cour-c  the  Pomans  also  went  to  see  each  otlier  quite 
intormally.  Cicero  often  <pokc  of  havini,^  spent  most  of  the 
day  chattin.tr  with  some  friends-'-,  and  when  he  was  away  from 
Ivnmc.  Caclius  wrote  of  how  he  missed  his  delii^rhtful  societv 
in  lei-urc  hour-'-'''.  Durinir  one  period  dcero  and  I'ompey 
spent  a  part  of  each  day  to^^ethcr.  at  the  home  of  one  or  the 
other'',  cniraiicd  in  lonir  talks  on  public  matters.  There  was 
difhculty,  too,  in  restricting:  this  callin.i:  privile<,^e  to  intimate 
Iriend-.  At  Formiae  dccro  comi)laine(l  that  "after  the  de- 
parture of  the  morninir  crowd,  who  did  not  stay  beyond  the 
fourth  li(.ur  of  the  day."  his  time  was  monopolized  by  liis 
nei<,dibor>,   from   whom   there  was   no  escape'-'^"\     The  appro- 

-"^  Aft.  7.  4,  2. 

'"'" '-^(l-   l-'i   11.   1.     r()nir)aro  here  Horace's  story  of  Volteius  Mena  and  his 
ofTense  in  not  calliiiir  upon  his  patron  Philii)pus.     FJjh  1,  7,  52  ff. 
'"'  Att.  l.'i  2;'!.  1. 

'''^Att.  12.  l.s,   \:F.  11.  7,  1;  U,  G,  1;.!//.  4,  9,  1. 
-"^.4//.  4,  10.2.  2'-, 4//    Q    1    '>•  19    1    o 

-"  .4ra^/.  1,1,1.  213  f   ^^  3    i 

•'■"•Plut    Caio  Men.  3.  2.  '^^  Att.  5,G,  1. 

"'■  .4//.  2.  14.  2. 


40 


priate  time  for  any  call  was  the  morInnl:-'^  >^o  wlien  Cicvvo 
went  to  Pompey's  house  after  dark,  he  felt  that  an  exphmation 
was  necessary-^',  and  the  visit  of  Fulvia.  "a  nohh'  hidy,"  to 
his  house  at  midniiiht  was  only  justified  by  the  fact  that  -he 
was  bringinfi:  news  of  a  plot  against  his  life-^\  It  wa-  en  — 
tomary  to  go  in  person  to  the  house  of  an  aecpiaiiitancc  who 
was  in  trouble  or  was  ill'-^'',  even  though  it  might  be  imp(K>iblt' 
to  see  him--^\  Sestus  was  confined  to  his  home  by  -ickncss 
when  the  charge  of  bribery  was  made  again-t  him.  whercujxni 
Cicero  went  at  once  to  call  and  offer  his  lei:al  a--i-tanc('-'. 
The  orator  often  speaks  of  the  friends  who  called  at  lii>  home 
during  his  exile,  to  express  sympathy  or  >how  kindne>>  to  hi-> 
amilv— . 

C.    Attention'  to  Peksoxal  Events 

Although  personal  events  in  the  life  of  an  individual  had 
to  do  more  especiall\'  with  liis  family  association-,  Roman 
societv  at  larire  showed  some  recognition  of  them,  and  >o  wc 
find  social  functions  or  duties  connected,  for  instance,  with 
birth,  betrothal,  marriage,  and  death.  Pliny  >ays  that  on(^ 
who  is  asked,  "What  have  you  been  doing  to-day?"  commonly 
replies:  "I  attended  the  ceremony  of  a  boy's  putting  on  the 
toga  virili.^,  I  was  present  at  a  betrothal  or  weddini:  ])art\, 
so-and-so  asked  me  to  come  to  witness  his  will,  another  to  gi\e 
him  advice '""l  While  the  Roman  of  i'liny">  day  probably 
devoted  more  of  his  time  to  such  matter-,  wc  find  that  the 
social  life  of  the  late  Re|)ublic  involved  many  of  the-e  -aine 

duties. 

1.  Birthday  Celebrations 

From  Cicero's  letters  wc  learn  that  the  birth  of  a  cliild  miglit 
receive  but  brief  mention  at  the  time.  The  orator.  e\-en 
thomrh  writing  to  his  \ery  intimate  friend  Atticu-.  announced 

:i6  4^^    4    4*    1.  :-    F.  t'..  !'.>.  2:  Plut,  Catu  Min.  o,  ^. 

-J"  Fr.  2.  5,  3:  2,  7\  2.  --'  Fr.  2.  o,  5. 

■'■^  Plut.  Cic.  15.  1;  10.  1.  -"  F.  S.  13,  1. 

:i^  F.  7.  20.  2;  Hor.  Sat.  1,  9.  17-lS.  -"- Plin.  Ep-  L  '*•  -• 


i 


Ll^ 


I. 


41 

the  arrival  of  his  only  son  and  heir  in  the  one  sentence:  "I 
want  to  tell  you  that  on  the  day  of  the  election  of  the  consuls, 
L.  Julius  Cae-ar  and  ('.  Marcius  Figulus,  our  family  was 
iiUTca-ed  by  the  advent  of  a  small  boy"--^  Of  course  it  was 
uruieeessary  to  give  the  name  of  his  son,  since  that  was 
fixed  by  convention,  and  any  failure  to  comment  upon  his 
importance  at  this  time  is  at  least  atoned  for  by  sufficient 
deinon-tratioii  of  hi>  father's  affection  when  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  -even-'-'.  Witli  equal  brevity  (^icero  announced 
the  birtli  of  hi>  fir^t  grandchild,  though  he  spoke  at  the  same 
tini.>  of  h\>  anxiety  for  the  child's  mother,  his  well  beloved 
Tullia^^''. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  anniversary  of  a  birthday  received 
marked  recoirnition.  When  dcero  happened  to  land  at 
Hrundi-ium.  upon  his  return  from  exile,  on  the  natal  dav  of 
hi>  daughter,  who  \va>  there  to  meet  him,  the  citizens  made  that 
coincidence  the  >ul)ject  of  particular  congratulation  and 
celebration--'.  On  hi>  own  >ixty-first  anniversary  he  sent  a 
special  invitation  to  Atticu-  to  dine  with  him  in  honor  of  the 
e\-ent--\  for  a  dinner  })arty  was  customarily  a  feature  of  such 
celebrations--'.  Plutarch  relates  jin  incident  which  happened 
when  Tato.  as  a  -mall  boy,  along  with  other  children,  was 
r)n'-ent  at  the  birth(]a\-  -upper  of  a  relative'-''^  which  makes  it 
probable  that  whole  families  had  assembled  to  celebrate  the 
occa-ion. 

2.  Betrothal  and  Marriage  Festivities 

Betrothal  and  marriage  were  occasions  of  marked  signifi- 
cance in  the  -ocial.  as  well  as  in  the  civil  and  religious,  life  of 
the  Roman-.  Tlie  sjxntydJid  were  celebrated  by  festivities, 
which  might  include  a  dinner  given  by  the  father  of  the  bride- 
elect   in   honor  of  tlie  l)ridegroom-'^,  and  a   banquet  was  an 


--'  .1//,  1.  2.  1. 
-•  F.  1  },  4.  3. 
■-•  Mt.   111.  Is.  ] 


Att.  4.  1,  4. 
Att.  13.  42.  2. 


^^^  Phil.  -l.i).  15;  Hor.  .<a'.  2.  2.  59-01.      ('i.  Mart.  1 1,  Go;  CIL  X,  5840. 
«o  PluT.  (\itn  Min.  2,  2.  '.-  f 


/".  2    .1    ''' 


42 


important  part  also  of  the  weddinir  ('(Temonics.  ('Iccto  wrote 
on  Atticus'  weddinir  dav:  "To-<la\'  I  am  to  dine  with  I'om- 
ponius  on  the  oeeasion  of  his  marriage  "-'-.  Hiis  ri'fereiice 
seems  to  indicate  tliat  the  nuptial  feast  wjis  sj)read  at  the 
home  of  the  hride^^rooni,  as  in  a  later  time  Juxenal  al^o  ini- 
plies-'^"\  althou^ij:h  the  conventional  weddinir  haiuinet  prohahly 
came  before  the  bride  left  her  father's  home'''.  At  any  rate. 
the  Romans  evidently  reirarded  it  as  a  real  (hity  \u  attend 
snch  functions,  for  Cicero  once  wrote  to  Attien->:  "1  wi-h  to 
be  in  Rome  on  the  seventeenth,  nay,  I  do  not  ^ay.  wi^h, 
rather  I  must.     It  is  Milo's  weddinu' "  ". 

Etiquette  seemed  to  recpiire  that  propo-al  fur  niarriaire 
should  l)e  made  to  the  famil\-  of  the  xounij:  woman,  either  1)\' 
the  man  himself  or  by  one  of  his  parents'''.  Hut  w  lien  (  ieero 
was  absent  from  Home,  he  a^ked  Atticus  an<i  other  friends  to 
assist  in  securinii^  suitable  proposals  for  his  dauirhter  'i'ulha '''. 
Plutarch  relates  that  Appius  Claudius  otfertMl  his  dauu:liter'> 
hand  to  Tiberius  Gracchus-''\  but  this  would  perhaps  ha\-e 
been  more  unusual  in  Cicero's  au'c.  Friend>  outsi(h'  the  faniih 
took  a  keen  interest  in  arranLrinir  niarriau'c>,  and  were  often 
consulted.  Brutus  even  incpiired  of  Atticus  why  lii>  ad\iee 
had  not  been  asked  about  suitors  for  the  youthful  Attica,  who 
was  at  this  time  twelve  years  old-''.  Her  father.  nioreo\-er, 
had  discussed  the  subject  of  possible  liusbands  for  her  two 
years  before'-'^^.  From  sources  other  than  Cicer(»  we  learn 
that  a  betrothal,  thouirh  attended  with  ceremony,  ,-ueh  as  the 
presence  of  witnesses'-'\  and  the  use  of  a  rini:  a>  token  of  a 
pledi]:e-^-,  might  be  annulled  without  ini})ropriety'-'". 

-3-  Fr.  2,  3.  7. 

■^■"  Juv.  (i:  202. 

'-^^  Macr.  Sat.  1,  15,  22.      For  a  fuller  disru^sion  soo,  o.  p.,  Mani.  Pr.  '>'A. 

-'''->  Alt.  4,  13.  1.  •^''  Att.    13,  21.  7. 

236  Att.  6.  6,  1;  6.  1,  10.  -'>  Pint.  Cntn  .\[,u\  24.  1.      Sec  Mar.i.  Pr.  ll'J  iT. 

-3-  Att.  o,  17,  4;  F.  8,  0.  12.     "'-  Pliny.  .V.  //.  IVA,   1,   12. 

23spiut.  Tib.  Grac.  4,  1.  ="Suot.  Jul.  1.  1.      ( 7.  (Icll.  4.  4,  2. 

239  ad  Brut.  1,  17.  7. 


43 


.  Mourning  for  the  Dead 


^[ost  announcements  of  death,  as  of  birth,  in  the  Ciceronian 
correspondence  are  brief  or  unemotional.  "Our  father  left  us 
on  the  twenty-eighth  of  Xovember,"  wrote  the  orator  to 
Atticus-",  and  again:  "I  have  lo.st  (^aninius,  a  man  who  in  his 

treatment  of  me  was  not  uno:rateful  "-'^  and  "  It 

Expressions     •  i      i      i  

of  Grief       '^  ^'***     '*^'  about  hems    -'*'.      This  is  his  reference 

to  the  death  of  llortensius:  '*  I  am  sure  vou  irrieve 
for  llortensius.  1  am  heart-})rokcn  m\self,  for  I  had  resolved 
to  live  on  very  intimate^  terms  with  him"-'';  and  this  to 
I'onipey".-:  "1  never  had  any  doubt  about  what  would  be  the 
end  of  Ponipey.  .such  a  com})lete  despair  of  his  success  had 
taken  po->e»i()n  of  the  minds  of  all  kings  and  nations,  that  I 
thought  this  would  happen  wherever  he  landed.  I  cannot 
but  lament  his  fall,  for  I  know  him  to  havi^  been  honest,  pure, 
and  a  man  of  principle  "•-'\  When  Attieu.>'  grandmother  died, 
Cicero  wrote  him  the  news  in  almost  a  jocular  tone"-''',  though 
ot  eour>e  thi^  wa<  e\idently  not  an  occasion  of  grief  to  either 
of  them. 

'1  here  are  in->tanees,  liowi'\-er,  of  fuller  expression  of  grief'-"'^^ 
an<l  of  more  attention  to  detair'''.  It  was  customary  to  write 
letter-  of  condolence  to  berea\ed  friends'-'-,  and  also  to  call  at 
the  h.nne  which  had  been  vi^ittMl  by  death-'"l  Attendance 
upon  iun<'rals  was  then,  as  now,  an  expression  not  onlv  of 
sympathy  for  the  li\ing,  but  of  respect  for  the  dead'-'^^  Some- 
times >ilenee  seemed  the  fitting  tribute  of  regard  for  sorrow. 
"  I  <h<l  not  venture  to  write  because  of  hi;^  grief,"  said  ( 4cero  in 
explanation  of  not  haxing  repli(>d  to  a  letter  from  Caesar, 
V.  ritten  ju-t  before  the  death  (.f  his  daughter  Julia-''"'. 

P>re\ity.  then,  or  apparent  indifference  in  the  mention  of 


-"  .1//  1.  <;.  2. 

''•'•'  Aft.  n.,  ]  1,  ,3. 

'"'  Att.  12,   11.   1. 

-'•'  Att.  {\,  (;,  _>. 

■•■''  Att.  11.  0,  ."). 

-''Att.  1.  .i.   1. 


^^''  Att.   1,  .-).   1;  4.  0.  1. 
-=  /''.  4.  12.  1. 

-  Cf.  pp.  OS  ff. 

^'^Att.  12.  11.  4;  12,  40,  2;  12,  4^.  1. 

^^*Aft.  1.-).  1'',  1. 

'"F.  7,  0.  1;  Fr.  3.  1.  25. 


>» 


44 


death  did  not  necessarily  imply  a  lack  of  feelini:,  hut  was 
probably  due  to  the  Roman  idea  of  proper  self-rcNtraiut-'^ 
Cicero's  friends  constantly  admonished  him  to  coiicral  from 
the  world  his  sorrow  for  Tullia'-'',  and  he  wished  his  jd)sen('e 
from  augural  meetings  to  be  excused  on  tlie  j)lea  of  ill  heahh 
rather  than  that  of  grief-''^  Only  regard  for  puhhc  opinion 
induced  him  to  recei\e  all  those  who  came  to  offer  s>inpatli\  •'  *, 
for  as  soon  as  he  could  escape  from  Rome  to  the  sohtude  of  fiis 
seaside  villa  at  Astura'-^",  he  declined  to  entertain  even  con- 
genial acquaintances-^',  and  would  not  sec  his  new  wif(\ 
Publilia,  who,  unfortunately,  did  not  share  his  grief  for 
Tullia-^-.  Caesar's  conduct  at  the  time  of  his  (laughter's 
death  accorded  better  with  the  Roman  ideas  of  propriety. 
*'  He  displays  great  courage  and  dignity  in  his  extreme  sorrow," 
wrote  Quintus  Cicero,  who  was  with  him  at  that  time  in  (hiur*'. 
The  moderation  which  the  Romans  a])pro\'e(l  in  the  expres- 
sion of  personal  grief  evidently  did  not  extend  to  the  matter 
of  public  honors  for  the  dead,  such  as  funerals  and  monuments. 
So  elaborate  were  these  in  the  age  of  Cicero  that  the  amount 
to  be  expended  was  re>tricted  by  law'-*"''.  Tliis  the  orator 
planned  to  evade  by  making  his  memorial  for  Tullia  a  public 
shrine,  sacred  in  character"-^'.  It  was  customary  for  >ome 
member  of  the  familv  to  deliver  an  oration  in  euloir\  of  the 
deceased  at  the  funeral'-**^,  though  convention  did  not  recpiire 
that  it  be  written  by  the  speaker  himself-^'.  Sometimes  this 
laudatio  was  afterwards  publishe(r~''\  and  it  was  not  imi)roper 
for  the  author  to  indulge  in  extravagant  praise  of  hi>  own 
relatives'-*'-'. 


:^^  F.  r,,  14.  2;  Att.  12,  ;5s.  .S. 
^■^'  Att.  12.  14,  3;  12.  20,  1. 
2^«  Att.  12.  i:i,  2. 
2^9  .4/^  12,  40,  2. 


260,4//.  i_»,  \A,  1:  12.  23.  1. 
-■■  Att.  12.  2f,.  2. 
-'-  Att.  12.  32.  1. 
-^  Fr.  3,  ^,  3. 


2«-'  .4^^  12,  35,  2.     Cf.  Flut.  Sulla  35,  3. 

^^'^  Att.  12,  30,  1;  12,  19,  1. 

266  Fr.  3,  8,  5;  Serv.  Aen.  1,  712;  Liv.  2,  01,  9. 

26'  Att.  13,  4S,  2. 

26S(/e  Sen.  4,  12. 

269  Brut.  IG.  02.      Cf.  Liv.  S,  40,  4. 


y 


CHAPTER   III 


COMPLLMEXTS  AND  PAYORS 

A.     POLITK    LAXCiUAGE 

A  consideration  of  the  coin|)liments  that  such  men  as  Cicero 
exchanged,  gives  one  a  sense  of  the  high  degree  of  refinement 
to  which  soci(>ty  had  attained  two  millennia  ago,  and  sug- 
gests a  modernity  in  the  social  usage  of  that  age  which  is  most 
striking.  In  delicacy  of  expression^  cleverness  in  outrivalling 
a  complimentary  friend'-,  and  in  ingenuity  in  the  use  of  polite 
phraseology",  Cicero  has  set  a  standard  which  even  a  modern 
gentleman  would  rate  as  high.  No  personal  quality  worthy 
of  admiration  failed,  it  would  seem,  to  receive  his  tribute,  for 
he  found  opportunity  to  compliment  a  friend's  good  judgment^ 
sense  of  justice"',  clevernes.^*',  al)ility  as  a  leader",  good  taste^, 
integrity^,  braxcrx-'*',  >'t('.^\  while  every  achievement,  from 
Atticus'  scholarly  letters''-,  to  his  brother's  elal)orate  dinners^'^, 
he  promptly  rewanled  by  some  word  of  appreciation.  Again, 
it  might  not  be  what  his  friend  had  done,  but  what  lie  was 
ex})ecte(l  to  <lo,  tiiat  called  forth  a  coinpliment'\  which  thus 
ser\"ed  as  a  means  of  gi\'ing  advice  at  the  same  time^^. 

The  more  delicate  language,  which  implied  rather  than 
exj)res,^ed  admiration,  illustrates  still  better  the  refinement 
of  Cicero  and  his  friends.  When  Ilirtius  had  been  admitted 
to  a  >mall  circle  of  puj)ils  who  were  studying  with  the  orator, 


1  /•'.  2,   1.1. 

2  F.  7.  23,  4. 

3  Att.  5.  20,  0. 

<  F.  4,  1,2;  13,  7s.  2. 
'  Att.  3,  15,  2. 
6  F.  2,  4,  2. 
'  /'.  2,  <■),  4. 
"  Att.  1.  S.  2. 


3  Att.  0,  2,  S;  Fr.  2,  14  (15),  4. 

if  F.  7.  IS.  1. 

:'  Att.  10.  S.  9. 

'-  Att.  10,  13",  1. 

'^^  Fr.  3.  1.  22. 

5"  F.  9,  1  },  0:  11,  22.  1. 

1^  Fr.  1,1,  30  and  30. 


45 


-J  ^ 


46 


a  common  friend  wrote  to  the  latter:  "I  should  envy  Hirtius, 
if  I  did  not  love  him  "^^  The  mere  use  of  a  name  or  tith^ 
sometimes  implied  a  compliment^';  so,  to  call  one  "  Acidinus" 
suggested  the  noble  type  of  character  associated  with  the  dis- 
tinguished men  of  that  name'\  and  in  the  same  s{)irit  dcero 
addressed  Octavius  as  "Caesar"  before  this  title  of  his  adop- 
tion had  been  confirmed  by  law'*.  With  perhai)s  more 
subtlety  he  wrote  to  Appius:  '' U  you  do  this  duriiii,^  your 
censorship,"— whereas  Appius  had  not  yet  been  elected  to  that 
office-'^.  Again,  we  find  the  following  tribute  to  the  grcatucs> 
of  Caesar:  "A  man  to  whom  people  had  no  access,  not  because 
of  his  haughtiness,  but  because  of  his  i)rc.>sing  duties  "-'.  'Vlw 
friend  who  was  called  the  "  personihcatioii  of  old-fa-hioucd 
wit"",  might  find  his  compliment  in  the  univcrsaht\  of  the 
idea  expressed  by  "good  old  times"  wliicji  contiimcs  to  be 
proverbial  throughout  the  march  of  ccnturie-. 

A  compliment  had  an  added  value  if  paid  tlirough  the 
agency  of  some  third  person.  Cicero  often  made  the  request 
that  his  praise  of  other  j)eoi)le  should  be  repeated  to  them''\ 
and  he  would  use  his  friend,  Atticus.  for  the  di-tributiou  (.f 
such  favors-^.  He  enjoyed  his  own  triumph  of  courte-y  on 
one  occasion  when,  after  telling  Ifortensiu-  of  a  eoniphnient 
from  Atticus,  he  opened  a  letter  from  the  latter  in  Ilorten-ius' 
presence  and  read  aloud  a  confirmation  of  what  he  had  ju.st 
said  -'\ 

In  an  age  when  so  nuich  attention  was  gi\-en  to  tlie  use  of 
polite  language,  it  i-  not  >urpri>ing  to  Hnd  it  further  de\-eh)pe(l 
as  extravagant  flattcry-\  which  Horace  later  satirized  in  its 
employment  by  legacy-hunters-'. 


"/".  A.  in,  :;, 
-'  /■■.  7,  111,  1. 
--  /■'.  I*.  1.^.  2. 


''  F.  7.  :y.].  1. 

'-  F.  1,  10.  1. 

'^  Att.  4.  11  ;•!. 

''  Att.  14.  1_\  _':  15.  12,  J. 

-'  F.  11.  0.  :i:  Att.  5,  1.  :>.     ri.  F.  13.  11.  I. 

■-'Att.    2.    25.    1.  2./'.    ;.      o      J.    J..      J       J.    j^      j-_    ^_ 

-^  Att.  10,  17,  1.  •-•:  Hur.  S<it.  2,  5,  'Jo  'JO. 


p 


47 


B.     rXSOLICITKD    Coi'RTESIES 

The  different  social  conditions  under  which  Cicero  and  his 
contemporaries  lived,  naturally  led  to  an  exchange  of  courtesies 
by  the  Piomans  such  as  would  be  unusual  to-day.  The  lack 
of  a  j)ublie  postal  service,  for  instance,  made  the  carrvin<^  of 
letters  a  matter  of  personal  favor  on  the  ])art  of  travelers'-'^ 
Although  state  ofHcials  or  wealthy  individuals  em})l()yed  their 
own  messengers  to  keep  up  communir-ation  with  Rome'-'*,  most 
peoj)Ie  wert^  dependent  for  the  delixery  of  letters  on  the  kind- 
ness of  ac(juaintances  who  might  be  going  themselves,  or 
sending  sla\t's  to  or  from  the  cit\  '".  \o  courtesy  was  more 
eare{ull\-  ob-erved'',  nor  more  >incerel>-  a.])preciate(l''-.  A 
person  about  to  ^et  out  uj)()n  a  journe\-  would  notif\-  his 
friends  in  time  for  them  to  write  whatever  thc\'  wished  him 
to  take''\  or  if  he  were  to  leave  unexpectedly,  he  would  hurry 
about  to  collect  h'tter>  which  might  be  ready  or  could  be 
hastil\  written'*.  If  not  iroinir  him>elf,  but  on}\-  sendin^^ 
nie<>en.gers.  he  (.ii'ered  to  forward  his  friends'  mail  with  his 
own,  and  in-truete(l  iiis  carrier's  to  cohect  it  before  thev 
stnrted".  An\'  failure  to  notify  a  friend  of  such  an  oj)j)or- 
tunity  was  a  breach  of  eti(|uctte  not  readily  excused'*'. 

This  custom  naturally  gave  room  for  many  cxten>ions  of 
the  ia\(/r.  As  a  >pecial  mark  of  attention,  a  friend  sometimes 
>ent  his  slax'c  some  distance  with  a  departing  traveler  in  order 
to  bring  back  his  first  letters''^".  Since  it  was  not  safe  to  entrust 
important  missive^  to  >tr;ingers  or  to  irresponsible  carriers'\ 
we  have  such  instances  as  that  of  Antony's  sending  an  intimate 
triend  to  carr\-  a  communication  to  Cicero,  who  considered 
tlii>  a  special  honor  to  himself''*. 

Lack  of  i)ublic  facilities  in  the  matter  of  travelinc:,  too,  led 


-^  Att.  4.   10.   1. 

"/■■/■.  2.   12  (14;.  ;>;  F.  2.   17,   1. 

•*"/-\   10.  5,  2;  Att.   1,  Vi,  1. 

^'  Att.   1,   i;i  1. 

'•'■■  Fr.  2.   1.   1. 

23  /'.   12.  1.^,  1;  Fr.  2,  1,   1;  2,  2,  1. 


'"'  F.  0.  2.  1. 

2^  F.  15,  l.s.  1. 

2«/-V.  A,  1,  21. 

'''  Att.  i:-5,  s. 

^'  Att.  10,  s.  1;  10,  11,  1. 

35  .4^/.  10,  b\  2. 


/ 


48 


to  the  Romans'  custom  of  invitini]:  others  to  share  one's 
accommodations  for  a  journey,  that  is,  to  accept  a  seat  in 
one's  carriage  or  Htter^".  On  one  occasion  (^icero  found  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  dccHning  such  an  offer  from  an  acquaint- 
ance whose  company  he  wished  to  avoid '^  Horace  speaks  of 
Maecenas'  invitations  to  ride  with  him  as  among  the  favors  of 
his  friendship^-. 

As  a  mark  of  attention  to  their  own  tribesmen,  officials 
secured  seats  for  them  at  the  puf)lic  games '^  but  this  nuist  also 
have  been  one  of  the  courtesies  shown  to  personal  friends, 
for  Clodia  controlled  the  distribution  of  the  consul's  seats, 
when  her  husband  held  that  ofHce". 

Legal  service,  in  the  age  which  we  are  studying,  was  nomi- 
nally a  personal  favor,  rather  than  a  matter  of  business'''.  So 
advocates  offered  their  assistance  in  return  for  obligation^^"', 
in  proof  of  friendship  for  a  defendant'',  or  at  the  recpiest  of  a 
common  friend'^.  In  return,  the  Roman  lawyer  expecttMl 
gratitude,  at  lea>t'^  tliough  we  have  reason  to  believe  that 
he  accepted  other  and  more  tangible  rewards".  This  element 
of  personal  friendship  between  an  advocate  and  his  clients 
often  led  to  embarrassing  complications,  as  when  Cicero  was 
asked  to  defend  Atticus'  uncle,  Caecilius,  against  some  of  his 
own  friends''^  and  when  he  became  the  advocate  of  Milo 
against  Pompey--.  In  the  former  instance  he  con>idercd 
Caecilius  quite  discourteous  to  ask  his  assistance,  and  in  the 
latter  he  appreciated  Pompex's  generosity  in  not  takiriL: 
offence. 

I'nder  the  head  of  unsolicited  favors  we  may  perhaps  con- 
sider bequests,   which  fre([uently   named   peo{)le  out>id(^  the 


<'  Fr.  :i,  I,  \.     Cf.  pro  Mur.  7 J. 
*'  Alt.  2.   1,  5. 


*^  F.  7,  1,  5. 

<i  F.  16.  17,  2. 

'■■  Hor.  ^'a;.  2,  0,  40-43. 

*^  F.  5.9,  1.      (C'f.  pp.  12    13.)      de  Or.itore  2.  71,  2Nr). 

<«  Fr.  2.  4.  1.  i'J  .1//.   1,  20,  7;  >e..  al-o  Smith:  Wx  Cincui. 

^'  F.  8.  G.  1.  SI  Att.  1.  1.  .3   4. 

*^  Att.  4,  IG.  4.  "  /,'   i^    10    10 

*^  Fr.  3,  1.  IG;  F.  3,  10,  5. 


m 


I  r 


49 


family   circle   as   beneficiaries,   especially   men   prominent   in 

public  affairs'',  or  which  might  show  a  special  preference  for 

some  relative,  as  did  the  will  of  Caecilius,  the  disagreeable 

old    uncle   to   whom    Atticus   had    been   kind    and   patient^. 

However,  even  in  Cicero's  age  the  securing  of  such  benefits 

became  recognized  almost  as  a  business,  in  which  the  orator 

spoke  of   his   various   successes   or  failures  as  one  would  of 

speculating  in   tlie  stock   market   to-day^'',   disappointed  one 

day  because  the  wrong  will,  signed  by  mistake,  had  cut  him 

off  from  the  sum  which  he  expected,'^^  on  another  pleased  that 

he  had  seen  the  seal  affixed  to  a  legacv  in  his  favor'".     From 

Plutarch  we  know  of  Pompey's  indignation  when  he  found 

Sulla  had  not  included  him  among  the  friends  remembered  in 

his  will'\ 

It  was  quite  proper  to  add  to  the  announcement  of  a  friend's 

death,  a  statement  as  to  the  settlement  of  his  estate■*•^  espe- 

ciallv   the   amount   which   the  writer  had   inherited^'^.     It   is 

easy  to  see  in  this  age  the  origin  of  the  professional  legacy 

hunter,  so  common  a  few  years  later,  and  the  subject  of  such 

bitter  satire  from  Horace  and  Juvenal.     Naturally  a  legatee 

whose  relation  to  his  benefactor  was  that  merely  of  a  client^^ 

physician^'-,  (tr  friend*'^  incurred  the  suspicion  of  relatives^S 

so  that  it  was  entirely  i)ro])er  for  liim  to  take  an  interest  in 

having   j)er>ons   witness  the  will   who  were  favorable  to  his 

interest/''. 

r.    Requests 

Knough  has  l)een  said,  perhai)s,  to  |)rove  that  the  well-bred 
Roman  was  extremely  courteous  in  volunteering 
favors  to  his  associates.     But  it  is  important  also 
to  notice  that  in  Cicero's  age  it  was  customary  to  ask  outright 


Character 


^'  .1//.   13,  4S.   1. 

^«  Xep.  Att.  .'>.  2. 

^'  Att.  4,  17,  2. 

'"^  Fr.  3,  •».  s. 

*'  Att.  7,  2,  3. 

^^  Plut.  Sulla  3S.  1. 

"'  Att.  r.,  ',»,  2;  F.  14.  .-),  2;  Att.  13,  4."j,  3. 


fo  Att.  2,  20,  G. 

61  Att.  1,  20,  7. 

«2  Att.  15,  2,  4. 

«  F.  13,  Gl,  1. 

6^  Att.  12,  18".  2. 

^'  Att.  13.  25,  2;  14.  3,  2. 


50 

for  many  kindnesses.     There  seems  indeed  to  have  heen  no  hesi- 
tancy in   making  requests,  either  between  such   intimates  as 
Cicero  and  Atticus^^  or  among  such  shght  aecjuaintanees  as 
those  who  besieged  official  candidates  in  hope  of  reward   for 
their  votes^'.     Since  tlie  poHtics  of  the  day   were  so  hiri^dy 
affected  by  personal  ambition  and   influence^'\  the  \)\va>  \'nr 
political  assistance  were  especially  numeroii>:  one  b(>^^(.,j  .,,, 
acquaintance  to  be  present  at  his  election*'",  another  widi^d  for 
defence  in  the  senate  or  in  the  popular  a>>eml)ly'".  a  third  to 
have  a  decree  of  public  honor  passed  in  his  bdialf'' ;  xUvw  Wi^w 
numerous  entreaties  for  appointUK'nt  to  olhce"'.   recall   from 
exile'^  etc.     Since  partisanship  did   not  alway>  limit   friend- 
ships, a  man  like  Atticus.  who  could  remain  on  intimate  term> 
with  (dodius  and  dcero  at  the  same  time"'.  wa>  in  a  po>iti(.n 
to  render  assistance  to  urgent  friends  on  both  >ides  in  nian\  a 
political    battle"'.       Tnder   similar   circumstances,    Dohibeila, 
while  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  Caoar,  consented  to  u>e 
his  influence  to  procure  for  Cicero  an  appointment  as  A7/r////.v 
withotit  duties,  in  sj)ite  of  the  hitter's  ho>tility  to  the  I  )ietator'''. 
The    Uoman    called    (piite   as    freely    upon    his    friend,    for 
financial  aid,  though  we  may  not  as>ume  that  all  of  Cicero's 
appeals  to  Atticus  drew  upon  his  friend'.-  own  bank  account'". 
for  he  also  had  charge  of  ('i(r-ro'>  e>tat(-\      IJnt   he  did  put 
his  own  fortune  at  tile  orator's  di.j)()>al' '  to  secure  hi-  return 
from  exile'^  and  again  to  provide  for  In's  daughter  Tnllia  in  a 
time  of  great   distro.s^'.     deero  alx.   wrote  of  .»ther  friend- 
during  his  exile:   "If  they  remain  loyal,  there  will  l)e  no  lack 
of  money"'-,  and  at  the  .-ame  time  he  bt>>,,nght   hi-  wife  to 


. 


ti".  r>: 


^'-  Aft.  ;•{,  ;-;. 

^^  Att.  14,  12.  1.  1.;.  K 

''^  At(.  1,  1,  2;  li.  '23,  1. 

■'  F.  5,  0,  ;^;  ,1/^  1.  12,  1. 

"'  F.  lo.  4.  11  and  Ki. 

'•  F.  2.  17,  0:  11.  10,  2-3;  12,  14.  4 

■^F.  4.  13,  0;  ().  7,  5. 

"■'.4/^  2,  9.  3;  10,  S,  3. 

''Att.  1.  15,  1:  5,  17,  5. 


/■'.  ::,  '»,   i;  AtL  .'y,  ID,  :\:  ,.f.  /•■.  s.  ;»,  i. 
•^  Att.  \r>,  1 1,  {. 
■■  Att.  7,  2,  7:  11,  2,  4. 
■^  -l^'.  12,  34.  2. 
''  Att.  4,   1.  3. 
*"  -4//.  3.  20,  2. 
^-  Att.  II.  24,  3. 
''  F.  14.  1,  o. 


^ 


^^ 


51 

*Met  those  suj)port  lier  wlio  could,  if  they  would "^^.  Again 
he  referred  to  paying  his  debts  "through  the  assistance  of 
friends"^',  and  when  his  brother  Quintus  asked  Atticus  for  a 
subscription  toward  his  son's  ex])enses  as  Luperciis,  he  con- 
sideretl  not  the  recjuest  for  money,  but  the  ])urpose  for  which 
it  was  to  be  Used,  !mpro])er'\ 

AinonLr  re({uests  commonly  made  of  friends  or  acquaintances, 
was  that  for  a  letter  of  recommendation'*',  or  for  mediation 
between  people  who  had  become  estranged''.  In  response  to 
such  an  ap])eal,  \  arro  brought  al)out  a  reconciliation  between 
Cicero  and  Pompe\  ",  and  Atticus,  the  friend  of  all  men,  was 
often  called  upon  for  similar  ser\  ices'-'.  Cicero  tried  to  return 
the  fa\-or  when  Atticus  inul  dilhcultv  with  his  rich  old  uncle, 

« 

( "aecilius'*",  and  the  orator  also  aspired  to  the  office  of  mediator 
between  Cae>ar  and  Pompey  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
Wai 


,jji 


Judging  from  the  amount  of  advice  which  Cicero  received 
from  his  friend.-  during  the  j)eriods  of  indecision  in  his  life''-, 
we  ma\  suppose  that  some  of  it  was  a  voluntary  oil'ering.  But 
we  know  that  recpiests  for  c-ounsel  were  very  numerous,  and 
that  Cicero  considered  it  an  important  duty  of  friend shi})**'\ 

This  great  freedom  in  asking  favors  of  one's  fellowmen,  did 
not  also  impl\  an  indill'erence  as  to  the  manner  in  which  re- 
(piest^  were  ])resented.  It  should  never  be  in  a  tone  of  arro- 
gance'', said  Cicero;  nor  was  it  courteous  to  make 
an  ap])eal  to  a  ])erson  who  was  in  suffering  or 
anx!(^ty''\  ( "icero  resent (m1  (^lesjir's  rudeness  when  he  sent  a  re- 
(juest  through  Trebatius  instead  of  directly  to  him''^  I>gent  or 
lengthy  pleas  might  iin{)ly  distrust  of  a  friend's  good  offices'^^, 


Manner 


"  F.  14.  2.  3. 

^'  Att.  4.  3.  0. 

S"  .4//.  12.  .",.  1. 

^'  Cf.  ]>.  ♦',(). 

''^  F.  ."),  2,  s. 

8^  Att.  2,  2(1,  1;  2.  22.  4. 

^^  .4//.  1,  2,  2:  11.  \K  A. 

'    Att.  1,  3,  3;  1,  1(1.  2. 


*'  .4//.  9.  \\\  2. 

»-  .4//.  12.  21.  5;  F.  11.  29.  1. 

«^  Att.  3.  23,  o:  3.  11,  1;  4,  3,  G;  11,  IG,  3. 

'''  Att.  (;,  1.  7. 

•»F.  11.  10,  1. 

^''  Att.  7.  17.  3. 

'■  F.  7.  10,  3;  Att.  5,  18,  3;  F.  15,  13,  2. 


^  i 


52 


though  in  fact  we  have  examples  of  the  most  impassioned 
language,  accompanied  sometimes  by  tears■•^  while  in  puhlic 
the  dramatic  scene  of  a  suppHant  fahin-  at  the  (vet  of  his 
benefactor  was  not  unusuaF^l  The  most  courteous  form  of 
petition  began  with  an  acknowledgment  of  past  favors'"",  or 
was  perhaps  accompanied  by  a  compliment,  such  as  a  tactful 
phrase  implying  the  certainty  of  its  l)eing  granted'"'. 

Etiquette  laid   more  stress   on   the   manner  of  replv   to  a 
request  than  on  the  necessity  of  granting  it'"'.     "l\>"rcfu>c 
courteously   gives    no   more   offence   tlian    to   grant    discour- 
teously" was  Quintus  (Icero's  warnin-  to  one  who  wisjie.l  to 
be  popular^"l     We  have  a  model  of  polite  refusal  in  Cicero'. 
letter  which   declined   to   assist   Lentulu.   to   appointment- 
but  he  evidently  considered  it  a  difhcult  matter  to  make  .uch 
refusals  graciously,  since  he  asked  Atticus  to  spare  him  the.e 
experiences  by  anticipation  of  any  impossible  demand,  which 
might  be  made  of  him'"->.     Between  clox^  friends  tluTc  was 
presumably  no  resentment  if  a  request  could  not  be  -ranted"^ 


''F.2,  U:Fr.  1.2.  ll;  At/.  J,  2;^  ;5 ;  ]().(, 

^^.1//.  1.  14.  o;/->.  2.  3.  .';.U/.  4.  2,  4. 
^°°  Att.  1,  20,  7. 

'"'F.  15.0.  12;  .1/^  10.  1G^  lU;  F.  :i    ;5     > 
'•^-^V.  3,  1,  10. 


'"■'/'  /^^  (\,us.  1 1,  4.".:  12,  If; 

''  F.  1,  1.  1.      (7.  Att.  S.  4.  2. 

'•  ''  Atf.  r,.  21,  -y. 

''^'  .1//.  -A,  {•>:  11,  22.  2. 


I 


ciiaptl:h  IV 


LETTER-WRITIXG 

A.    OCTASIOXS 

In  a  stud;/  of  tlu^  courtesies  exchanged  by  individuals  in 
our  social  world  to-day,  we  should  probably  find  that  letter- 
writing  played  an  important  part.  If  this  be  true  now, 
it  must  have  been  more  so  two  thousand  years  ago,  when  it 
represented  almost  the  oiil\-  means  of  communication  between 
{)ersons  who  were  separated  by  a  long  or  short  distance,  where- 
as the  twentieth  century  modes  of  rapid  travel,  telephone,  and 
telegraph  service  liaxc  done  away  with  the  necessity  of  sending 
a  letter,  if  a  personal  visit  of  even  a  few  moments  would  be 
more  appreciated,  or  a  (piick  message  over  the  wires  more 
ell'ective.  But  in  Cicero's  a<i;e  not  onlv  must  all  matters  of 
pri\'ate  interest  be  sent  in  writing,  but  travelers  from  Rome 
and  residents  in  distant  countries  were  also  dependent  on  the 
courtesy  of  friends  at  the  capital  for  lunvs  of  important  events 
there',  such  as  our  modern  })ress  supplies  for  the  whole  world. 
Ej)istolography,  then,  had  a  far  more  iinj)ortant  ])lace  in  the 
stan;!..rd  of  eti(juette  established  by  Cicero  and  his  contem- 
poraries than  it  would  hold  to-day;  indeed  the  frequency  of 
letters  sometimes  constituted  a  test  of  real  friendship-.  The 
very  difficulty  and  uncertainty  which  attended  the  sending  of 
a  written  message  doubtless  added  to  its  importance"^,  and 
made  it  a  matter  of  politeness  never  to  neglect  the  opportunity 
of  forwarding  some  missive  to  an  absent  friend^,  whenever  a 

'  Att.  4,  14,  2;  F.  12,  22,  1.  ruder  Julius  Caesar  an  official  journal,  reporting 
the  transactions  of  the  Senate  and  items  of  general  news,  was  daily  exhibited  in 
puhlic.  This  was  copied  by  agents  in  Rome  and  sold  by  them.  See  TeufTel, 
Cieschichte  der  romisclien  Literatur  (1S90).  §216. 

'  F.  2.  10,  1.  "  Att.  7,  1,  1. 

■'  F.  1,  7,  1. 

53 


o4 

chance    traveler    or    niessen^rrer    should    hv    -oin-    his    way'. 
Cicero  would  even  stop  hy  the  road>ide  to  pen  a  tVw  words' 
which   some   passin-   carrier   nii,-ht    take   al<.n-''.   and    it    wa^' 
doubtless  only  hy  .uch  !nicea>in-  etf'ort  that  hr  and  Atticu^ 
kept  up  their  corre-^pondence  of  daily  letter,  for  many  yt«ar.'. 
Moreover,  an  ei)istle  which  must  encounter  >uch  difficuhies 
in  reachinir  the  person  to  whom  it  wa>  addre^-^ed.  had  to  ^wiu 
worth  the  effort;  and  the  art  of  lettcr-writim:  wJnch.  savs  tlie 
French  scholar,  Boissier\  has  been  almost  lo.t  in  the  hurrv  and 
complexity  of  our  modiTu  life,  flourished  in  tho>e  ancient*  day> 
of  fewer  demands.      Fortunately   we  haxe  in   Cicero's  corre- 
spomlence  a  rare  collection   of  hitters  which   rc^cal   in   u^vat 
richness  the  occasions  upon  which  the  polite  Ionian  made  u^e 
of  this  form  of  intercourse  with  his  friend.,  as  wrll  as  the  detail, 
of  form  and  style  sanctioned  by  correct  u^au'c. 

Before   we  consider   these   subjects   indivi.luallv,    we   nuLt 
m)te  that  etiquette  naturally  rccpiired  an  answer  to  written 
communications,    and    imposed    an    obligation    in    re-anl    to 
the  length   of  the  epistle".      "I   should   think  you    would    bc> 
ashamed,"  wrote  (^icero  to  Cas.iu.,   '"that  this  i.  the  thinl 
letter  which   I   have  inflicted  upon  you  without  a   pa-e  or  a 
syllable  from  you^"'\      Uv  once  said  of  an^werinir  a  n..te  from 
Caesar:   "There   is    no   alternative   without    otlence"".    while 
Caesar  once   pur|)osrly   ne-lected    to   r(>ply   to   a    letter   from 
Clodhis  in  order  that  this  sli,i:ht  miirht  indicate  a  .ympathv  tor 
Clodius'  opponent,  Cicero'-.     Since  letter.  oft(Mi  arrive<l  by  a 
special    messenKer=\    whom    it    wa.    <li.courteous    to    detain'' 
except  by  permission'"',  the  .ender  expected  the  an>wer  to  be 
prompt'^'. 

Prominent  among  the  occa.ions  which  called  for  the  use  of 


^  -4^^  5,  17.  1:  5,  11.  7;  Fr.  i,  .s.  _>. 
^.-l^^  5.  10.  1. 
'  Att.  4,  2,  1;  7,  9,  1. 

8  Bois:^ier,  (r.    Ciceron  tt  sts  amis.     Intm.!.   i> 
'  Att.  11,  IG,  4;  F.  14.  2.  1. 
"^  F.  15,  16,  1. 


"  .4//.  S.  -J.  1. 

'-  Fr.  H.  1,  11. 

'^  -4//.  s,  ir,  }, 

''  F.  1(1.  :]:],  I;  i\  s    1  )   4 

'^  -4//.  11,  _'.  1:  ir>.  21.  2. 

"^■"-  -'.  17,  1,IM>.  3. 


f 


? 


^ 


)■) 


wnttrn  ,n,.>.s.:;,..  were  HKiny  <ochl  f„n„a!iti,...  such  a.  t],,.  ,.x 
P-v».,.„  „t   r„n,^rat„lati,.ns,  of  ap.,l,,,.y,   of  thanks,   of  co.ulo- 
Congratulations  '''""'■•  '"'  "''  '""•'"lii<'ti(,ii.     The  courteous  friend 
_  all,,«c,l  no  inci.h'ut  of  success  or  i;oo,l  fortune  in 

another  scarcer  to, .as.  without  a  notcofconirratuh.tion  Such 
y""-.vc  was  sent  to  an  cxih^  upon  l,is  recall-,  although  it 
nn,hi  iHThaps  ,lwcll  so  persistently  on  the  writer's  own  part 
'"  the  <onM,unnation  of  the  happy  ,.vent.  that  it  scemcl  rather 
a-i  cxprcs-ion  of  sclf-con.n-atulatiou-  Ci,,,,,,  ,(^,,  ,,;,  ^,,^,„.,, 
"•<""han,s  uncut,  wrote  to  Attieus,  whose  ,lcx„te,l  effort  had 
.treaty  h,.|pcd  ,  ,  hrin,.  ahout  hi.  recall,  scu.lins  hi.n  not 
>nnply  thanks,  hut  congratulations  for  his  successful  part  in 

;'"■   'T:"""'  ''"■"'■"■     '^"'"-  ■'' '""•'■'"-'^   "'■  a   duaditer's 

, ''"'""^''-    '■^'■"    '^'    '■    "-^    l'>''-    third    n,atrin,onial    venture 
;n.u,ht    t<,    her    father   expressions   of   pleasure   at    In.    „oo,i 
'"••'".H.-.      (^uhc   naturally   fric.,.!,  and   acquaintances   u^te 
t"  .■oiii^ratulate  a  person  who  had  just  recavcl  an  inheritance^' 
''^'-';^'-;'  a  'ase  in  c-onrf^  ha,l  I.ecu  ch-cted  to  office^',  or  ha,! 
'■•■'■'•■ved  <onie  pul.li,.  honor,  .uch  a.  the  title  of  "  in,perat.,r  "=' 
•"■a  l"-pnlar  demonstration  of  favor".     When  Appius  Claudius 
"rote  to  (  iccro  that  h,.  was  acquitted  of  the  charge  of  „,au:s-fas 
""■  lat"'>-  -•■>.r  this  elluHv,.  r..,.ly :   -  I  .,nl.raced  vou  in  ima-dua- 
"""■  >in.e  you   were  not   her,.,  and   kissi,,.  the  verv  letter    I 
<-.t:ra,ula„.d     n,ys,.|f    ,|,„  •.,     .j-,,     ^j^,^;,,^^     ^^.|^;    ^,.^j     _'^^ 

attend  Pouipcy  s  .^ranus  at  the  openiu.ir  <>(  his  new  theatre  the 
<"-^'tor  also  wro,,.,  rcjoicin.i;  that  his  friend's  absence  ha,l  been 
diM    n,,t  to  ill  health  but  to  -ood  sense-'. 

iu  th,.  ni.atter  of  writin-r  apolof,ries  social  nsa.ire  was  evidently 
I'-xactn,-.  and  we  have  variuu.s  examples  wliich  throw  liuht  u| 


>on 


p.  .".-')  iH.tos  lliat  the  Romans 


'■'  An.  .i.  -'o.  J. 

"  /■.  7.  -•,  -•. 

"/■'■  -'.  ■.'.  I:  I.-.    7,   ],-,.  s 


-'  /■'.  I.  ^1,  -'. 

='  /•'.  2,  .-,.   1 

=•/■'.  ■■'..  II,  L'. 

'"'■'■  7.  1,  1. 


'   rft.. 


Apologies 


56 


the  prevailing  standards  of  etiquette.    We  have  spoken  of  tlie 

importanee  attaehed  to  a  eorrespondencc  Ix^twcen 
friends,  and  of  the  (Hffieultirs  whieh  attended  it. 
We  are  not  surprised,  then,  to  find  exeuses  for  the  ai)s('n('t'  of 
letters,  on  the  ground  that  there  had  been  no  means  of  xMuhng 
them-^.  Sueh  an  explanation  was  readilx'  acccptt'd,  as  was 
also  that  of  ill  healtlr'l  (/ieero's  i)lea  that  he  had  omitted 
writing  to  save  expense  was,  of  course,  an  attempt  at  wit '", 
although  his  humble  apology  to  Trel)atius  for  ha\  ing  >ent  him 
no  letter  during  his  campaign  with  ('ae>ar  in  (iaul,  heeaii-c 
he  did  not  know  his  address^  does  little  credit  to  the  orator's 
sense  of  humor^^ 

The  uncertainty  as  to  a  letter's  reaching  its  (lotination 
furnished  an  adeqtiate  apology  for  its  brevity--,  but  the  famihar 
"too  busy  to  write"  was  regarded  as  an  all'ectatioii  in  Cicero'^ 
dav^'\  however  conventional  it  ma\  be  in  the  twentieth 
century.  When  Atticus,  too,  ^hortened  hi^  message  "to  take 
a  walk  or  an  anointment,"  his  friend  sarcastically  rephed  that 
he  "likewise  must  close  to  get  some  sh'cp"''.  (\)n>i>ti'ntly 
with  this  the  orator  pleads  insomnia  as  an  excu>e  for  writing 
at  too  great  length'^'',  since  this  caUed  for  an  exphmation"*', 
as  did  dullness  of  subject  matter''. 

Cicero's  correspondence  furni>hes  examples  of  the  con- 
ventional apology  which  was  written  after  a  discourte^x  or 
offence  to  a  friend  or  acqiuuntance.  Thus  Antony  wrote  to 
ask  Cicero's  pardon  for  not  having  caHed  upon  him  (hiring  a 
brief  stav  near  him  at  (^imae'-,  and  the  orator  wa>  careful  to 
explain  to  Plancus  why  he  had  not  been  in  the  >enate  when  his 
suppUcatlo  was  voted'^*.  Xumerous  other  in>tance^,  among 
which  we  find  an  apologx'  for  the  riM-all  of  an  invitation  to 


^'  -1//.  4.  2,  1;  F.  1,  7,  1. 

-3  Att.  5,  11,  7. 

^0  Ihid. 

3'  F.  7,  l.S.  1. 

3-  Aft.  !.".>,  1. 

^^'  Att.  1.  It.  1:  cf.  M.  Aurcl.  Mid.  1,  VI. 


^*  Att.  '.»,  7.  7. 

35  ^4//     s.    1  ,    1. 

36  F  r. .;,  t,. 

3"  At*.  ^.  11.   1. 

38  .1//.    IM,    I  ■,,   .J, 

^9  F.  in,  _'.  1. 


% 
^ 


K     k^^ 


57 

VKit'",  for  tlie  breaking  of  a  business  engagement^^  for  tardi- 
ness in  offering  congratulations-,  c/r.,  convince  us  of  the  general 
use  ()f  such  polite  forms  in   Roman  society.     J^rutus  accom- 
})anie(l  his  critici>m  of  Cicero  to  Atticus  with  the  ho])c  that 
tlie  latter  wonid  pardon  him  for  thus  ..peaking  of  his  closest 
iVH'nd'\  while  Cicero,  a.side  from  his  i)unctiliousne.ss  on  indi- 
vidual occasions,  once  begged  general  forgiveness  from  Atticus 
b>i'  all    his   omi^Mons   and   ollcnces  during  their  friend.ship'''. 
Among  the  convrntional  phra>es  in  vogue  we  find  "  / Vr  fun 
^[''''''"[  "•   "  Jf'  .vou  will  pardon  my  saying  ,.o"'^\-  and  the  brief 
formality:  ''  Ej-rusniimu  i„  arrijjin":  "I  accept  your  apology"  ^^ 
Brutii>  con>idered  an  exi)res>ion  of  thanks  a  formality  that 
was  iinne(v>sary  between  intimates.      "Don't   expect  me  to 
^^'''''^  ''"""'  ^'y  ^^'-'^te  to  Cicero,  "from  the  clo.scness  of  our 
Thanks        ^'''i^'"<^^J»']>'  that  ought  long  since  to  have  become 
superfluou.V"'.     On  another  occasion  he.said:  "A 
debt  eaiinot  be  paid  in  words  to  one  whom  I  can  .scarcely  repay 
in  de.*l>"=\     With  .similar  f(>eling  Plancus  al.^o  wrote  to  Cicero: 
"Such  ch.M'  intinuny  as  you    have  wished   me  to  have  with 
you  doe.  not  >vvui   to   require   an  expression  of   thanks,  nor 
<!<>   I   willingly  make  in   return   for  your  v(Ty  great  kindness 
tlH"  i)oor  ollerin-  of  word>"''.      But  since  language  provides  a 
natural  mode  of  expre.>i(,n  for  gratitude,  however  inadequate, 
verbal    acknowledgment  of  a  favor  was  not  only  acceptable 
to   i^)man  etiquette,  but  its  omission  .seemed  a  mark  of  dis- 
courtesy''". 

While  Cicero  was  in  exile,  he  had  Terentia  .send  him  a  li.st 
nf  the  people  to  whom  he  ought  to  write  letters  of  thanks  for 
tlK-ir  cllort.  to  have  him  recalled'.  To  Atticus  he  made 
courteous    acknowledgment     of     his     assistance    in    political 


*"  .\tt.  ;>,  },  1. 

^'  Att.   1,   12.   1 

'         - .     (  ,     1  . 


^3  ,:,/  />V 


■•>/; 


alul  I). 


I. 


*'y.  7,  17,  1 


^^  .1//.  Ui,  1.  fi. 
■'••  'v/  liruf.   1,  (1,   J. 
'^  /•'.    II.   1.!,   ]. 
■'■■  /•".   l'>,  2},   1. 
5°  F.  .'>.  .-,.  _'. 

''  /■^  n.  1.  .y  ii.  ;:;,  ;j. 


-i   I"    »- 


58 


circles''-,  of  his  generous  otl'er  to  aid  by  his  wealth'*,  of  his  care 
of  Tullia  during  lier  fatlier's  absence''*,  and  of  nnniberh'ss 
instances  in  which  his  help  and  counsel  had  been  present  in 
the  life  of  his  unfortunate  friend  ".  So  pnnctihous  was  Cicero 
in  this  matter  that  once,  when  a  letter  of  thanks  to  Attit  iis 
was  returned  to  him  without  having  been  delivered,  he  -ent  it 
back  to  him  to  sliow  that  he  had  written  of  lii>  gratitu(h' 
promptly'^,  although  Atticus  suggested  that  he  did  not  expect 
such  strict  formality''.  Among  the  iniineroii>  rni>>i\('> 
written  in  expression  of  thanks  we  find  >uch  subjeet>  a.>  pohtical 
support'^,  a  compliment,  or  gift  which  had  been  reeeixed  by 
the  writer''',  or  such  a  fa\'or  as  release  from  attendanct  at  a 
meeting  of  augurs''\  or  the  recei})t  of  information  concerning 
personal  slander^^ 

Not  satisfied  witfi  his  own  offering  of  thank>.  the  courteous 
Roman  also  asked  liis  friend^  to  nienticn  hi>  gratin:<i(  to  any 
one  to  whom  he  might  be  indebted*^'-.  Kxcn  Cae-ar  at  the 
height  of  his  power  did  not  negh'ct,  ^aid  Cicero,  to  exprc-s 
thanks  "in  his  {)olite  and  witty  manner"''',  >onietiine->  >o 
effusively,  in  fact,  as  to  embarrass  the  orator**',  whih'  the  hlth' 
girl,  Attica,  who  sent  a  message  of  appreciation  in  lier  father's 
letter,  shows  the  early  training  of  t!ie  Roman  chihl  in  thi-  form 
of  courtesv^'. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Roman  of  RepubHcan  (hty->  frowned 

upon   any  extravagant  expre>.-ion  of   grief  in  time  of  (h'ath  or 

other  sorrow^'^',  and  gloried  in  the  fortitude  and  <eh'-controh  his 

,  ,  inheritance  from  sterner  ancestors,  which  taught 

Condolence     ,•,,,, 

Inm    that    he   shouhl    en.thn'c    sutfering    without 

any  display  of  weakne»*''.     So,  ahhough  the  h'tt-r  (»f  condol- 


•'■-  Aft.  11,  7,  ;i  and  o. 

-  Att.  :\,  20.  2. 

^'  Att.  10,  s.  <). 

^^  .1/^  1.  :'>,  2;  0,  0,   I;  !»,   12,   1. 

'"^  Att.  2,  i;:5,   1. 

*■  -4//.  ,3.  17,  3. 

•'-"'  F.  2,  6.  .5. 

»^  ad  Brut.  2,  4,  0;  Fr.  :;,  7,  2. 


«o  .1//.   12,   17.   1. 

«'  A  ft.  s.  2,   1  ;  /•'.   11,  21,   1. 

'-  Att.  4.  0,  4. 

"  /•■•.  2,  13  A :>''),  ;;. 

•-•   Att.    !».    (1,    ti;    /•'.    1,   ',),    Jl. 

•■•  .4/^  1  !.  10,  ('.. 

'•-^  F.  4,  0,   1  :  .4//.  3.  11,  2. 

'•  .4//.  10,  14,  1. 


^% 


59 

ence  had  its  place  in  the  code  of  social  courtesies^\  it  often  bore 
as  well  the  burden  of  advice,  or  reproof  for  showing  grief^'-*. 
Among  the  letters  of  syinj)athy  which  Cicero  received'^in'^ exile, 
came  the  warning  that  because  of  his  manifest  dejection  the 
rumor  had  spread  abroad  that  his  mind  was  unbalanced  bv  his 
nn-sfortune'".  Later  he  himseh'  wrote  to  Alarcellus,  who'was 
m  exile:  "I  am  bound  rather  to  congratulate  you  for  your 
fortitude  in  trouble  than  to  condole  with  you  in  your  afflic- 
tion "''. 

In  dcero's  C()rresj)ondence  tliere  are  some  interesting 
exami)Ie^  of  consohitory  letters.  We  find  the  stereotyped 
form,  which  admonishes  the  sufi'erer  to  "take  comfort  in  the 
consciousness  of  crood  intentions,  since  there  is  no  serious 
evil  except  misconduct"'-;  or  "it  must  be  a  comfort  to  have 
done  what  is  right  in  spite  of  the  resulting  misfortune  "'l 
There  is  the  reminder  that  "death  must  come  to  all  ""\  and 
the  exhortation  to  find  solace  for  trouble  in  the  noble  son  who 
mii^t  be  a  joy  to  his  father.  In  this  particular  case  there 
follow,  a  lengthy  enumeration  of  the  youth's  virtues'"'.  Some 
writers  mak(^  an  effort  to  keep  alive  ]ioj)e''\  and  take  a  more 
cheerful  tone  than  the  facts  would  warrant''. 

1  he  prescriptions  for  cheerfulness  are  in  some  cases  quite 
elaborat(^  Cicero  >ays  of  a  letter  from  Brutus  at  the  time  of 
Tnll!a'>  death:  "It  contained  a  great  deal  of  wisdom,  })ut 
iK'thinir  to  give  me  comfort  "'\  His  reply,  when  he  wrote 
to  con^.Ic  Brutus  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  shows  that  this 
form  of  sympathy  was  not  always  acceptable:  "You  are  pro- 
vi(h'd  with  the  remedies  which  you  offered  for  my  relief.  .  .  .  T 
truM  xhv'w  cure  in  your  case  may  be  more  effective  than  in 
'.     This    may    li(>lp    us    to    understand    Cicero's    self- 


miiie 


«'  .1'/.  13,  2(».  1:  F.  r,.  ]:;,  :;;  o.  .; 
«'  A/t.  3.  10,  2  :',:  :i.  ].',.  I. 
'"'  Att.  '.i,  [:',,  2. 
■'  F.   1,  s,  1, 
"-  /•'.  ti.   },  2, 
'^-4/^  11,  0,  1. 


''  F.  r>.  IG.  2. 

'■'/'.  5.  17.  r>. 

'^  Att.  ,3.  10.  1. 
"-4//.  ::;,  17.  2;  3,  IK.  2. 
''  -4//.  12.  14,  4. 
•^  <i'l  Brut.   1,  0,   1. 


-*  ». 


60 

commendation  for  havinir  read  all  the  letters  written  to  sootlie 
his  ^rieP°. 

The  various  occasions  which  called  for  some  cxprosion 
of  condolence  included  sickness^'  or  death^-,  and  an\  pergonal 
misfortune^'\  such  as  exile^',  the  chari^^e  of  crime,  or  conviction 
for  it;  for  in  Cicero's  a<,^e  this  was  often  reurarded  rather  a>  a 
misfortune  than  a  disi,Tace^-\  Such  a  letter  of  sxinpathv 
mi<i:ht  be  sent  even  to  a  person  of  whose  conxictioii  the  writer 
appro\'e(r^\ 

A  very  heavy  demand  made  1)\-  eticpiettc  upon  the  Roman  of 

Cicero's  a<j^c  was  that  of  letters  of  introduction    written    for 

friends  and  acquaintances.     So  general  was  the  cu>tom,  that 

T  .    J    .•         prominent  men   u-a\e  tlie-e  introductions  rather 
Introductions   ... 

mdiscrimmately,  as  ( 'icero  admits".  Therefore  in 
the  case  of  a  special  friend  he  felt  oMi^ed  to>tatethat  he  wa>  not 
writini,^  merely  in  conventional  terms^\  \vry  sli-ht  ac(piain- 
tance  seemed  to  justify  a  request  for  an  introduction  or  a 
recommendation^"';  and  so  the  circumstances  were  entirel\- 
probable,  which  Horace  later  pictured,  in  his  anuisiiii:  satire 
on  an  encounter  with  a  bore  who  wanted  entrance  into  the 
circle  of  Maecenas-'". 

Such  letters  were  often  petitions  for  some  si)eeial  attention 
to  the  bearer-^S  or  reciuests  for  the  j)rotection  or  inlluenec  of 
a  ^^overnment  ofhcial'*-,  either  for  an  individual  or  a  wiiole 
community'-'-l  Since  a  reconunendation  mii^ht  furnish  the 
writer  a  means  of  cancelliui,^  an  oblipition'*,  lu^  would  perhaps 
su^^trest  that  any  courte>y  shown  the  per-on  whom  he  intro- 
duced would  be  re^^arded  as  a  fa\()r  to  liim>elf '"'. 


^  9 


»"  Att.  12.  11.  :•{. 

*'  Att.  S,  (),  A;  10.   10.  ;5;  /•'.  T,.  L'l,  :». 

^-  F.  5.  \-4,  :i. 

^^  Att.  11.  s.  1. 

^'  F.  5.  IS,  1. 


^'  F.  1.").  n,  1;  ;;,  m,  i. 

'■'  /•'.  s.  :.'.  1. 

•'^  F.  \A.  70.  1. 

^^  /•'.  !;•!.  iy.K  1;  /•'.  7.  0,  1 

"'  F.  l-l  r,"':  i;;.  m,  i. 


«'^  Hor.  Sat.  1.  9.  4."^  47.      Cf.  also  Hor.  F/>:^(.  1,  Is,  OOan.l  70  tT.  uii  tliodunu'or 
of  reromniciulin<:  on  slijzht  ;;c.iuaintanc«'. 

31  F.  7,  5.  3;  V.i,  53,  1-2.  ^'  /•'.  1.^,  7o:  i:-!.  00,  l. 

«-  F.  13,  50,  1;  13,  Or,.  I.  r  l\  13,  01.  1  ;  Fr.  3,  1,  ',). 

"F.  13,  11,  2. 


jPt'^ 


*> 


Handwriting 


61 


B.    FoHM  AND  Style 

When  we  look  into  the  matter  of  the  form  and  style  which 
were  considered  proper  for  a  courteous  letter,  we  find  that 
tlie  handwriting,^  and  material  received  attention,  as  well  as 
the  form  of  title,  the  .trreetin^%  the  close,  and  the  style  of 
lantruai^^e. 

Althou^^h  the  o^reat  number  of  intelli<rent  slaves  owned  by 
the  Iiomans  made  the  employment  of  an  amanuensis  for  letter- 
writinjj:  very  common,  an  intimate  friend  ex])ected  the  courtesv 
of  a  message  from  the  writer's  own  hand'*^  or  the  latter  took 

this  means  of  ])ayin<j:  a  special  compliment  to 
his  corresj)ondent-''.  It  was  in  his  forty-ei,^hth 
yrar,  after  a  life-loni,^  frien(lshi|),  that  dcero  wrote  to  Atticus: 
"Never  before,  I  think,  have  you  received  a  letter  from  me 
not  written  by  my  own  hand  "••\  and  whenever  he  was  ()bli<,^ed 
to  send  his  friend  a  dictated  letter,  he  carefully  ex})lained  the 
rea.-on,  whether  it  were  rush  of  business'"',  inconvenience  of 
travelin.ic'"",  or  illness^'",  or  because  he  wished  to  conceal  his 
identity  for  fear  that  the  letter  mi,i,dit  be  intercepted'"-.  To  his 
brother,  also,  ( "ieero  always  a{)ol()<rized  for  a  dictated  letter^"^. 
He  disliked  to  see  the  handwritim:  of  Atticus'  secretarv  j)e- 
can>e  it  indicated  that  his  friend  was  \\V'^\  and  he  was  deeply 
touched  once  b\-  the  cramped  script  which  showed  that 
Atticus  had  written  with  In's  own  pen  while  sufferin<(  from 
fever'"'. 

I'.ven  in  letter^  penned  l)y  a  scrib(\  there  was  often  a  con- 
fidential j)art  added  by  the  writer  himself'"*^.  So  when  dcero 
read  some  of  a  personal  letter  to  another  friend,  he  explained 
that  it  was  only  the  dictated  ])orti()n'"'. 

'■>'  Alt.  5,  10.  1.      Cf.  cpi-tlc-^  wriltcii  hy   St.  Paul  from    Rome   in  which   he 
sptak-  of  haviiiiz  pcnnrd  hi>  incs.^atre  with  his  own  Jian<l.      Gal.  0:  11  ;  Col.  4:  is. 
-"/■.  3,  r,.  2;  X..;,.  Aff.  10:  4.  "'^ /->.  2.  2,  1:2.  15  (10),  1;  3,  3.  1. 

••^1^/.  2,  23.  1.  i"4  .{(f    7^  2,  3. 

•^  Att.  4.  Ui,  1.  loi  ^.1^/    (i_  ,)_  I 

•"o.4/^  5.   17,  1;  5.  n.  1.  106/;^    2,  13,  3;  .1/^  S.  1,  1:  11,  24,  2. 

'^"-l"-  '^.  1-'.  1.  ^^^  Att.  <.,  0,4. 

i"2  Aff.  2,  20.  5. 


Materials 


62 


There  is  some  reference  to  the  (h'scourtesv  of  writiin^ 
illegibly^^^  hence  it  is  possible  that  a  k'tter  neatly  written 
by  an  amanuensis  sometimes  i^ave  no  more  oU'ence  than  its 
typewritten  successor  of  to-day.  Quintilian  empha>iz('(l  tlie 
importance  of  learnini;  to  write  a  .i^ood  hand  "becaux'  of  it> 
advantage  in  private  and  intimate  correspondence  "  "*. 

Modern  etiquette  helps  us  to  a})preciate  the  attention  [)a!d 
by  the  Romans  to  the  proper  materials  for  letter-writing-. 
Cicero  ridiculed  Trebatius  for  sendinic  him  one  on  parchment 
which  had  been  used  before'^".     Xotes  retpiirinu-  an  immediate 

answer  should  be  written  on  wax  tablets  which 
were  suitable  for  rei)eated  n>e,  and  hence  \'\\r- 
nished  a  medium  for  the  rei)ly^^^  To  in>ure  his  correspondent 
the  secrecy  and  inte.i^rity  of  his  mes>air(\  the  writer  mu-t  >eal  it 
with  great  care.  lie  tied  the  packet  with  a  >tring  and  sealed 
the  knot  by  wax  with  his  signet  ring''-. 

Although  we  have  the  benefit  of  nuich  re>earch  and  (\\>vu<. 
sion  on  the  opening  and  closing  of  a  Roman  letter,  there  is  >till 
some  question  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  >up(>r>cri{)tion>  as 
they  now  appear  in  dcero's  correspondence,   and    a-   to   the 

signihcance  of  the  fornudae  emplovcd"'.      I  low- 
Titles  and  .  '      • 

Names  ^'^'^'^'  ^^^'"^  quotations  and  references  in  the  body 
of  the  letter  to  titles  or  names  u>ed  in  the  ad- 
dress, we  have  some  direct  evidence  that  the  formal  opening 
did  correspond  to  tho>e  found  in  the  mamlscri{)ts"^  and  in  the 
absence  of  sufficient  proof  that  any  considerable  number  of 
these  superscriptions  are  spurious'^',  we  are  probably  >afe  in 
deducing  conventional  forms  from  such  a  classification  a^  Mr. 
Pease  has  made  of  the  greetings  in  Cicero's  letter.^'*''. 

i"^Fr.  2,   14  (l.V').   1.  IP.  fr.  J.  -t.   1. 

io»  Quint.  In.st.  Oral.  1,1,  28.  »-  in  Cat.  -l  o. 

"0  F.  7.  is,  2. 

11' See  E.  M.  IVasc:  Th>  (;n,tifu,  in  L,tt'rs  ,,/  Cuum.  Stu.li.v-  in  Ikhi.u-  .,f 
B.  L.  Gildersleeve.  pp.  .■•!!KV-401.  Cora  M.  Portrrfu-Ul :  77>.  ,id  Attirum  Sup,  r- 
scription^^.  C\.  Kev.  vol.  12,  pi).  4;iS  ff.  Johanii  B:ibl.  h,..  Kpistulamm 
Latinaruin  Formulis. 

'^'Att.  3.  20,  1:  F.  1,  10;  3,  11;  7,  29;  2,  10.  1. 

"^  Cf.  Porterfield.  ''M'f.  \uu>  II.;. 


1> 


1 


f--^ 


63 


A  comparison  of  the  titles  and  forms  of  names  which  dif- 
ferent people  used,  or  the  same  people  used  under  var\inir 
circumstances,  shows  (]uite  plainly  that  etiquette  was  an 
important  factor.  We  have  aln^idy  noted  that  in  addressing 
an  official  it  was  proper  to  usi^  his  highest  title''".  We  find, 
also,  that  the  writer  might  make  an  ecpial  dis])hiy  of  his  own 
rank"\even  when  his  corresi)()ndent  had  no  such  distinction''-\ 
F>ut  the  demand  for  such  formality  de|)end(Hl  upon  the  occa- 
sion. Thus  while  we  hnd  full  titles  used  in  th(^  business  or 
public  letters  even  of  intimate  friends'-",  these  same  persons 
omit  them  in  informal  or  familiar  mi>sives.  In  one  instance 
we  have;  "M.  Cicero  Procos.  .  .  .  Appio  Pulchro  Imp."'-', 
or  "M.  Cicero  .  .  .  l^ruto  Imp.  Cos.  I  )esig."''--,  while  else- 
where it  is  simj)ly:  "M.  dcero  .  .  .  Ap.  Pulchro "''-\  and 
"M.  Cicero  .   .   .    1 ).  Bruto"'-'. 

Similarly.  con\-entionality  allowed  the  omission  of  names 
uudvr  certain  circumstances.  In  official  and  extremelv  formal 
letters  we  find  tlie  full  jn-dOKniun .  nofncn  and  cognomcv  of  both 
persons'-',  whereas  the  use  of  onK-  two  nain(>s,  with  varietv  in 
choice,  characterizes  business  letters  or  those  of  mere  acquain- 
tances'-". This  applied  also  to  the  address  on  the  outside  of 
the  j)acket.  Cicero  refers  to  one  such  as  "M.  Curio"'-',  and 
a  fresco  at  I'ompeii  shows  a  letter  inscribed  simply  "M. 
Lucr(^tio"'-^. 

Persons  associatiMl  l)\-  intimate  friendshii)  or  bv  familv  ties 
might  propiTly  ust^  one  name  only  in  their  exchange  of  letters. 
T!ie  evidence  as  to  which  name  was  commonly  chosen  is  some- 
wliat  conflicting,  and  the  selection  ])erhaps  was  not  always  con- 
sistent. Mr.  Pease  concludes  that  i)ersons  whose  intimacv 
began  in  childhood  used  the  jji'tfcuoDuii,  while  the  use  of  the 


i;:  S 


vv  ]).  0. 
'-  F.  2,  li».  1. 
"»/-\  10.  34,  1. 


'"    F.  3,  0,  1. 

'■'■'  F.  11.  17.  1. 

-■  F.  2.  U),  1:  o,  2.  1. 


'-»  CL  BaM..  pp.  17  iT.      --^  F.  4.  14.  1 ;  4,  4.  1 ;  o,  10,  1.     Cf.  Pca-so.  p.  401, 


'-  F.  3.  2,  1. 
'--  /•'.  11,  is,  1, 


'-■  Att.  S.  .'),  2. 

'--  T3rrL41;  Corrcsjjondificc  of  Cicera,  I,  Introd..  p.  4S. 


64 


nonieu  ij:enerally  indicates  matiiiT  friendship  or  family  rclation- 
ship^-^  Thus  Cicen.  used  lu's  own  and  his  brother's  prat  nm/n  n 
when  writino:  to  Quintus^'",  as  he  thus  oeea>i()nally  addrexM'ii 
a  friend  of  lonix  standin.i:■■^^  hut  in  h-tter^  to  hi>  wife  he  ummJ 
her  uomen,  Terentia,  and  Hke\vi>e  his  own,  Tuihu>' ~.  Hnt 
we  notice,  on  the  other  hand,  that  ahhou^di  ( 'icero  usually  ealU 
Atticus  hy  his  nomrn,  "Pomponius",  in  the  early  part  of  their 

correspondence''-\  he  sometimes  use^  the />/7// //o/z/r///' Titn^  "■  ^ 
and  occasionally  hoth'-.  Tlien  after  hi-^  friend  receixcd  the 
cognomen  "Atticus",  lie  adopted  that  alnio>t  entirely' '''.  and 
as  a  further  extension  of  it,  called  hi>  friend",>  little  dau-hter 
"Attica"^-'".  The  playful  use  of  Attieu-"  full  name  on  ene 
occasion  when  "  Caecilius"  had  ju>t  heen  added  hecauM'  ,.r  hi. 
adoption  by  an  uncle  of  that  name,  explain.^  it.>clf  a^  a  de- 
parture from  custom' '\ 

Accordincr  to  (Icero's  own  statement  it  wa^  th<'  /.n/. //^/v, /? 
that  familiar  friends  droppeir^',  and  if  Tyrrell',  interpretatinri 
of  a  letter  from  Tiro  may  be  accepted-",  the  latter  (pu-tioned 
the  propriety  of  his  patron's  showin-  .>uch  intimacy  with  his 
freedman  as  to  address  his  letter:  "  TnIUjj.s'  Tinnii  Sol." 
omittino:  the  prarni>/ro:/i^''K  Moreover.  Cicero  el-ewhere  tells 
us  that  it  was  the  cognnm,  u  which  intimate-^  u>ed'''-.  alth.tu-h 
the  disputed  pas.sii^e  in  Horace:  ''  ijniidnit  prononn'no'  mnlh.s' 
aurlcuIac''''-\  may  imply  that  to  call  one  by  hi.  j.raninmnt 
imlicates  a  flatterin^i:  intimacy'^-.  A>  a  special  mark  of  atlec- 
tion,  diminutive  form>  of  proper  name^.  >uch  a>    TolHulo''', 


i:i  See  Pease,  p.  3!»s. 

''"Fr.  1.  1.   1;  1,  3,  1.  ,ic. 

''-■  F.  4,  1.  1. 

'■-F.  li.  1-24. 

^'■^  Atl.  ;>.  9.  2:  4,  Is,  2,  ilc 

J-  Att.  9.  0.  :,. 

1-  Att.  4.  -2.  5. 


!'■  .1/',    \J.   1.   1  ;    IJ,   14,  4:    I 

'^'  At;,  -s.  Jii,   1. 

'"'  F.  7,  M.  1. 

i^cTyrrril  W   109. 

''■  F.   m,  Is.  1. 

=  '-  'it  I )■.><,. I  «i,  _>_>. 

^^^  Ilur,  Sat.  2,  3.  o2. 


!.   1",  .'.  ttc. 


^^''  Att.  0,  1,  .n);  14,  12,  1;  r,,  2,  s. 

i-Sce  hou-ever  Tyrr--ir>  note  ivol.  1.  IntrM.i,,  p.  49^  on  thi-^  pa-a-o  of 
Horaee.  He  suc-e.t:^  that  re^l.ect  rather  than  intinia<>y  i>  v>  i,,.  .houn  l.y  thnr 
u^iuii  the  j>'-'it  nnnun. 

'•''  F.  14.  1.  0. 


r     *     < 


I       ^ 


Greeting 


65 


or  playful  nicknames  like  Calnis — "Bald  hea(^'^^^  and  Mi 
I  (fi(h\ — "Old  fellow"'*',  were  quite  common;  the  j)()ssessive 
j)ronoun  al>o.  attached  to  a  friend's  name,  implied  the  writer's 
fondness  for  hiin''\ 

The  salutation  with  which  a  lunium  letter  be,i:an  was  quite 
stereotyped,  and  when  used  in  full  indicated  the  writer's  inten- 
tion to  be  formal  and   resi)ectfur*\     An  ofHcial  despatch  to 

the  senate  and  magistrates  properly  bei];an:  Si 
rohfi.s-  l/hi  n'jnc  rtsfri  ralnit,  Jxnf  csf;  cah  o^'-\ 
and  if  A\ritten  by  the  commander  of  an  army,  lie  achied: 
kno  >  .n  rrifn.^ujur  /7//m////.v'''.  ( 'ourte.^y  recpiired  this  formal 
i^reetini:  aho  in  a  letter  to  a  treneral''-.  P>ut  in  private  corre- 
spondence a  briefer  form:  Si  rtihs  Jjrnr  r.v/'"'  was  sufhcient, 
or  -ini])ly:  sojutnn  difif  was  added  to  the  names  of  the 
writer  and  recipient  of  the  letter'"'.  In  instances  of  close 
relation-hip  we  hnd  a  still  further  reduction  of  the  formula  to: 
siiliifi  III  isoh.  '■'■',  .sometimes  mo(lifie(l  l)y  ])liiri}noiii^''^\  it  was 
often  entirely  omitted'^''.  Convention  therefore  <:ranted  con- 
-idt-rable  \ariety'  \  but  letter.,  written  to  women,  even  within 
the  family  circle,  show  the  more  polite  irreetim::  sohitviii  .  .  . 
(lii'if'  '. 

The  ft.rmal  endini:  of  a  Pioman  letter  of  this  period  was  not 
so  elaborate  as  it-  beirinninir.  The  briefest  and  commonest 
formula  in  the  Ciceronian  corresj)ondence  is  simply  Vale, 
which  -tands  at  the  clo.<e  of  both  friendly  and  formal  epis- 
tles   '.     Idiere  may   l)e  the  rej)etition  of  tlie  word""',   or  the 


Close 


addition    of    some    such    phrase    as    (fiom    ofrjue 
( f I o !i  1^'^'- .  and  this  in  combination  with  a  closing 


><«  .1".  1.  Ui,  .' :  r\.  Hor.  Snt.  1  ;  ::!,  pa-im. 

^*'  /'.  7.  19.  1.  ;  '■  F.  12.  11.  1;  1.";.  2.  1. 

^*^  .1".  :■'..   \:  F.  1  \.  y>.  1  :  n^  4.  2.  ^'■-  F.  :,.  7,  1  :  .J.  2.  1. 


"M-f.   Ha!,l  ,   ;,.  21. 

15^  /•.  12.  \r>.  1. 
i»*  /■  .  1.  1:  1.  : 


>-'  Att.  s.  11:  'J.  7 
-'  F.  4.  4;  1  1,  2. 


1. 


<:tr..  nd  Brat.  1,9;  F.  '■).  !«. 
1^*  /  .    i.   11.  '•    F.  V.i.  7s.  2;  Fr.  .j.  7,  2. 

i5-  A't.  1  I,  19:  1  J.  21  :  F.  .".  19:  9.  ^.        ■■--  F.  14.  2,  4:  14.  3.  r>. 
IS*  /■.  '*.  '9  Ui.   1  1.  !•-  F.  19.  5.  2:  19.  G.  2. 

'"  /  .   14.  1:  14.  ;;:  14,  4,  >tr. 


'J 


6G 

appeal  suggests  intimacy-'-'  „r  atlVction"'-.  An  nppropriatc 
form  ot  ending  a  letter  ais„  includes  a  niessai^e  to  ,„•  from 
some  other  frieiui  or  meinher  of  the  writer's  family"'" 

The  date  and  place  of  writing  al<o  stood  properlv  at  the 
end  of  the  letter'^";  hut  many  of  those  in  Cicero',  corrcpon.l- 
ence  are  not  dated,  and  in  a  study  of  the  rca>o„  f„r  these 
omissions,  a  German  scholar  makes  th,.  deductions  that  the 
date  was  not  customary  in  short  n,,tcs  to  f,e  proniptK  de- 
livered, nor  in  letters  given  to  friend>  to  .■arrv;  l,„t  that  i't  wis 
always  written  in  official  letters,  and  gcneralK  i„  ,l,„s,.  ..,,t 
to  friends  from  a  distance  or  on  a  journcv"-.  Ilnwever  t'lr 
evidence  for  these  conclusions  is  not  entirely  co„vi„ci„,,'..,nd 
Cicero  tells  us  that  Attics  was  ./„■„,,/.  .afeful  to  date  his 
letters,  in  a  tone  of  commendation  of  tin-,  coin-tc~y"- 

The  language  of  a  letter,  as  well  a.  it.  ,.x„,-nal   form    re- 
flects the  standards  of  etiquette  in  voun.e  at  thr  tin.,,  it  wa. 
written.     Courteous  phra^.s,  restriction  or  freedom  in  the  u<e 
language      "!  ^'•^'''•""ations  and  oaths,  modesty  in  the  men- 
tion of  indelicate  subjects  an  in.luliren,-,.  in  ,,.arM. 
wit,  or  frankness  in  self-prai.c,- -all  thcc  elmimt.  ent.T  into 
a  consideration  of  the  form  of  letter  whirl,  Cj,.,,..  ,n,d  ,on- 
temporaries  considered  proper. 

There  is  an  evhient  intention  ,,„  tl...  part  ni  htfr-u  riter. 
to  make  the  closing  [mragraph.  th,-  ni,..t  .ourtm,,.  part  of 
the  missive'^-'.  At  the  end  of  a  p„lit,.  me-.„v  „f  f.Hvu..n 
written  ,n  Cicero's  nio.t  finished  Mylr.  .tai.N  ,i„.  fnll,,.v,..- 
sentence:  -It  remains  only  to  f,,||,nv  vour  io„rii.'  wirh  ■,ll'<.,'~ 
tionate  interest,  to  look  fnrwanl  to  v„nr  rw.,.,  uith  h,,„..  ,,, 
eheri.h  you  m  memory  uhil,.,-,l,„Mi,. 1  t..  .11,,  u,i,- our  r.- -ret 


'^y^'J'"'-'-''  -''■  -  '!'  -^-  ^.  5-^-   I-.  V     rf.  Babl..  p.  29. 

J,  '!!!    '   !'\!~-  ^'-  ''     ^     ^      '-'•  ^^"^  ^^c  ^Pi«tles  of  the  Now  Testament. 

,     ^      "'^'^      fr  re.i>.r.    :■  r  k1  ...    Aitonumswiss..  vol.  139.  pp.  32  ff 
"    i/'    ■''■  -■>.  1.     rf.  Suet.  Atuj.  30. 
'^'F.o,  IJ.  Ki,.},  17.  5;  5.  18.  2;  13,  6«.  5. 


^ 


67 


by  an  intcrchan^rre  uf  letters"^"".  So,  too,  a  letter  frequently 
el(>ses  with  ^onie  e.\|)res.->i()n  of  iTi,^ar(l'''. 

There  is  no  denyinir  the  fact,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  litera- 
ture, that  })(.lit<'  society  in  the  elosini;  days  of  the  Republic 
imposed  h'ss  restraint  on  choice  of  lanirua.i^e  than  we  should 
expect  in  sinnlar  circh's  to-day.  It  is,  therefore,  somewhat  of 
a  suri)ri-e  to  find  dcero'.-  ('{)rres])ondence  comparatively  free 
from  coar.^c  ex})re.->ion^  intended  to  be  amusing,  and  reserved 
in  discus.-!oii>  of  imh-hcatt^  matters.  To  be  sure,  dccro  offers 
no  apolo-y  fur  ]\\>  extravagant  use  of  puns'"'-,  many  of  which 
<h)  not  nicaHire  up  to  the  -tanihird  i^f  wit  as  set  i)y  himselP"'\ 
Atti('u>,  too.  in  one  h'tter  wa>  guilty  of  a  ])un  >o  bad  that 
(  iccro  had  great  diflicuhy  in  .seeing  the  point  of  it'"'.  The 
Roman  wa-  e\idently  not  so  careful  about  boring  his  corre- 
spondent in  thi-  way  ;i>  a  eourteou,>  writer  of  to-day  would  be. 
Hut  Cicero  criticized  Raetu>  for  the  coarse  jokes  at  the  end  of 
fii>  h'tter.-,  comparing  them  to  tlie  niinu^^  presente<l  after  a 
P^'^^''  '  ;tiid  once  \\\\vn  he  himscH'  desccndiMl  to  a  simihir 
Nuiirarity,  he  admitted  tiiat  it  v/as  unbecoming  language  for  a 
niaii  (•[  cH)n.^uhir  rank''*'. 

1  !ie  orator  di-cu-.-cd  Tiii>  .subject  of  refinement  in  lamiuage 
a!  M.nic  h'n-th  in  a  letter  to  Raetus'"'.  The  Stoics,  he  said, 
thiuiirhi  it  w;;^  alway.  hc-T  to  UM'  word-  which  nn"ght  !)e  taken 
!it(M';iliy.  hut  he  (h'fciidtMJ  the  other  custom  (A'  referring  to 
"b-(*'!i«'  niattc!'-  in  xcih-d  hingnage,  and  we  ma\  rea>onably 
infcrihai  inafi\  o!  hi- ci  )nieniporarie>  agreed  with  him.  (^uin- 
tiiiaii  -how-  how  thi-  indirect  mo(h'  of  e.\pre>sion  Ivd  to  condi- 
ti"n-  ii!i<lcr  V.  hich  iniin>  word-  or  phra-c-  mi^dit  ha\-e  a  double 
meaf!i!iL^  and  -<>  -imirc-t  (.b-cenit\-  where  n(»n(^  was  intende{r''\ 
In  the  ellurL  lliu.-  tn  [ire^cnt  aii  m(h'hca<*\-  clothed  in  pr(»per 
evtcrnnl  fnrni,  a   wriicr  *  nipjoxcd  anien-  (*ilier  mean-  tliai  of 

1^0  F.  15,21.5.  17*  Alt.  7.  iu  .  i. 

i^»F.  2,  3,  2;7.  14.2.  175^.9.  16,7. 

1^'  F.  7,  32.  1-2;  Att.  6,  1,  25;  8.  14,  3;  F.  7,  13.  2.      i'^  Att.  2.  1,  5. 

'^»  de  Oratore  2,  235.  w:  F.  9.  22. 

i^«  Quint.  8,  3,  44-47.     Cf.  F.  Ritter:  Rhein.  Mus.  vol.  3.  pp.  569-580. 


> 


I 


68 

foreign  words  and  phrases.  Many  of  the  Greek  expressions  in 
Cicero's  letters  served  this  purpose,  such  as  medical  terms,  and 
the  names  of  diseases  and  physical  conditions,  which  he  used 
even  where  less  technical  names  were  available^'^. 

In  one  of  the  philosophical  dialogues  Varro  asks  the  indul- 
i:.  nee  of  his    .  n  pauions  for  his  use  of  Greek  in  their  dis- 
"^--'^'^^^  ^^?  '  -  1   -in  cnuU  not  supply  the  necessary  words. 
P-'^  n.  M  vn;^  iJM  :,     onsent  Im    n  plied:  ''You  are  verv  kind 
"  '  ' ''•  '^ '*  '^'  '   i  I  ^piu  in  uuii  permission  to  speak  in 

Latin  "ISO,     It  un^  nm,  ihrn,  nr  nil  tin.s  and  places,  courteous 
to  UM.  :i   huv,,.,   lanmi.^,.  in   .•nn^.r-.n.n    .^th  one's  fellow- 
'■-^^^^^^•y^^^^'^^^  ^^n.\  ,U:r   lu.inu  ...  h.,u  nua   we  account  for  the 
pn-enru  ot  .o  nnirh  twv.k   in   <  K.Tn'<  lott.Ts,  asi<|r  (v,.n  t^e 
rt'fm'nrTstoin(lHi.-air-u!.j,..ts>'     it  .-an  m.M  n.  .  ,r ..  anse,  only 
niH' thin-:  that  thr  writ.-r  knru   nf  hi.  r.  aav.p.anh  m'.  ai.ility 
tn  u^e  thr  hinirua-e;  anj  Mnec   ihi.  ua.  -rurrnUv  trn.^  ..t  ,.,,L 
tnivd  peoph"   in    that    airo.  it    nrr.j    n.a    inJi.-ai.' an    ..innn^r 
<h.f)lay  of  loarninir'^h      Hr,-an>r  nf  nn.a.-iaint^   in  thr  .lAnviy 
of  letter>,   it   wa>  al>o  pmprr  tu  um- a   hnn:nauv  niikn^wn  to 
the  avera-e  rnnh'r  a.  a   mean,  of  M.nrin::  fM■i^a.■^    .,!   r.aav- 
spondence''-. 

The  letter,  convince  n>  that  pohtc  coiTe>.])on.haHr  in  (  i.vrn'. 
aire  made  free  u>e  of  exehinuition^  and  <.ath..  onnv.pun.hn- 
perhai)s  to  slan-  phrase..  Mich  a.  wunhi  .caivcK  hrham  r,.  a 
good  style  to-(hiy.  One  of  tlie  nio.t  conininn.'  .1/.  /A  ;vv./.  . 
indicates  little  more  than  an  emphatie  "I  tell  xa.n'"  nr  •  ] 
shouhl  >ay"^-=.  while  /Vr  fnrfunns,  ''hi  the  name  nf  V.y. 
tune''^  and  Mr  .//.,v  _/;.//...  -Cp,,,  ,,,  wmxl  ^  ,  qnln. 
frequently  form  a  part  nf  appraU  and  Mmnir  n-ertinns. 
I  nder  ^tre^s  of  deep   fcrlini:   thr   writm   ifunkn-,   ila'   ^,m1-    in 

'''  ^■'-  11.  T.  1:  .on  ns,  in,  i.  n^.  i^.  i    n;  .v    i 
180  ^caf/.  1,  7,  25. 

,    7  n   '    ?  '  '  "  ""''^''"  ^^  ^h«  "Greek  in  Cicero's  Epistles."  see  R.  B.  Steele 
'  ;  ''■  P^^-  ^^^  ff:  ^^d  of.  -Cicero  ad  Atticum".  by  Louise  Dodge.' 

A    f.  {     V  1    ,_>.  pp.  439  IT.;  also  Tyrrell.  Vol.  I,  pp.  66-68. 

^"^.1.8.2;. 1       1    I      1    Fr.2.8.1.     ^^  F.  8.  13.  1;^//.  9.  12.  1. 


r2^t^ 


t^ 


69 

Per  deos  ^^\  Di  honi  ^^\  or  Di  immortales  ^^\  all  of  which  are 
probably  equivalent  to  our  exclamation,  "Heavens!"  More 
in  the  nature  of  oaths  are  Moriar^^^,  Peream^^^:  ''May  I  die," 
and  Illi  diirate^^\  Di  hercule  istis^^\  I  Hi  male  sit  ^^\ot  Male 
faciant^^\  meaning  "Confound  them!"  or  "Curse  them!" 
which  are  also  common. 

One  is  tempted  to  look  for  a  significance  in  the  Latin  use 
of  the  singular  nos  corresponding  to  pronominal  usage  in 
certain  modern  tongues,  but  although  it  undoubtedly  expresses 
an  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  wntri  hnt  idmucai  with  hi.^  use 
of  ego,  it  seems  more  a  matter  of  prr^nnn]  feelinn  tlnan  nf 
etiquette^^^ 

C.     CoXFTPFvrr    !\    ^Mn'RESPONDENCE 

Sinnn  ihe  liouian.-.  tiepended  .>o  karnrk,  nn  thr  htter-  of 
their  fri'^nd^  fnr  nrw^.  wr  nm-t  imm  kr  nirpri^rd  tn  find  that 
^''<''''  "'-^t  •  h--  fr-;n'-(|  trr  the  fM'i\ar\  nf  rnrrc-pnndenrr  than 
J""'l'''''i  riiqnrtlr  wuiild  deman.k  Ahhnnirh  nian\  of  tlie 
1''^^'-"-  «'\(hanur.l  kin  intimate-,  -nrji  a-  ( 'irero  and  Atti<a]->, 
^vrrr  rn!ifi(haitiak  nthrr-  donkth'--  pa--r(l  from  friend  to 
'fi'iid;  lirnrr  thr  -perial  mention  nf  a  p('r:-ona.l  me.ssaLCc'"k 
(  iccro  e.\pre>.>e(l  no  -in-pri-c  or  disph-a-nrr  when  he  h'arne<I 
tliat  (  ae-ar  had  made  pnhiic  kii>  ])ri\ate  cnnimunications' ''. 
When  (^nintn-  (  irrm  wrote  ahn^i\-el\'  of  iiis  brother  to  some 
ac(piaintance-.  they  did  not  he-itate  to  show  the  h'tters  to 
othrr  p)eoph'''\  and  hna]l\-  to  deero  himself,  (^uite  hc- 
(pnaitly  the  (.rat<.r  enrh)M-d  tlie  copy  of  a  letter  which  he  had 
rcrr.\rd,  w licn  lie  wrote  to  Atticu,-^^'-^^. 


'"  Att.  4,  7    1 
192  ^«.  16,  1,  1. 
iw^«.  15.  15,  1. 
i«^F.  11,  21,  1. 


"«  F.  8,  1  !     I , 

'8- ^«.6,6,  5    -   ]r,,i, 

•88  F.  2.  7,  2;  Att.  8,  6.  3. 

"»  Att.  9.  7^  3. 

"°  F.  8,  15,  2. 

•"On  the  "Singular  Use  of  Nos'\  see  R.  S.  Conway.  Camb.  Phil.  Trans., 
vol.  5,  pp.  7  flf. 

"«^«.  4,  17.  1.  198  ^«.  11,21,  1;  11.22,  1. 

"^.4«.  8,  2.  1;8.  9,  1.  '"yl«.  8.  1.  1;  8,6,  3;  8,  11,6;  9,6,3. 


70 


More  surprising  than  this  freedom  with  one's  own  corre- 
spondence, is  the  Hberty  which  was  apparently  taken  with 
that  of  others.  Servilia,  the  mother  of  Brutus,  appropriated 
a  letter  from  Cicero  to  her  son  which  arrived  in  his  absence^°^, 
not,  however,  without  annoyance  to  the  writer.  But  the 
latter  once  admitted  to  Atticus  that  he  had  opened  and  read  a 
h  tier  from  Pilia  to  Quintus-°S  as  he  did  also  a  packet  from  his 
brother  which  he  suspected  of  containing  some  abuse  of  him- 
self. He  even  contemplated  preventing  its  delivery,  but  finally 
had  it  resealed  with  his  brother's  signet,  which  could  be 
obtained  from  the  latter's  wife-^-.  This  deception  would 
indicate  that  he  wished  to  conceal  a  breach  of  good  manners, 
if  not  morals,  and  elsewhere  Cicero  condemns  such  conduct^^^. 
Q^^'ntus'  son,  he  tells  us,  was  in  the  habit  of  opening  his  father's 
mail-^^,  and  so  his  uncle  did  not  trust  him  to  carry  a  confidential 
letter  about  himself  to  Atticus^^^. 

A  corresponding  lack  of  integrity  in  the  signature  of  letters 
seemed  not  entirely  beyond  the  bounds  of  propriety  as  it  was 
conceived  in  those  days.  Cicero  asked  Atticus  to  write  in  his 
name  to  whomever  he  thought  advisable  in  his  absence  from 
Rome-^,  and  to  make  some  excuse  for  the  absence  of  his  seaF°'. 
Decimus  Brutus  likewise  entrusted  Plancus  to  write  letters 
over  his  signature-^^ 


200  AH.  15,  24. 

201  ^«.  5,  11,7. 

202  A«.  11,9,  2. 

203  Phil.  2,  4,  7. 

204  AtL  6,  3,  8. 


205  ^«.  16,  1,  6. 

2o«  Att.  3,  15,8;  11.5,3. 

207  A«.  11,  2,  4. 

208  F.  11,  15,  1. 


1 


> 


CHAPTER  V 


LITERARY  WORK 

A.  Personal  Dedications  and  Allusions 
The  etiquette  of  writing  concerns  itself  not  only  with 
letters,  but  also  with  more  formal  literary  work,  for  ;ven  in 
such  productions  the  author's  attitude  toward  his  associates 
•s  shown  Roman  writers,  like  modern  ones,  used  to  dedicate 
a  book  to  some  fnend  or  to  a  prominent  individual,  as  an 

IXotl"    r    "''''^   ''  '"''''''''■     C'^-«'^  ^--I'^tion  of 
Anstotle  s    Tomca  appeared  as   a  memorial   to    his   youne 

avonte   Trebatius^  and  he  referred  to  his  published  speech 
for  Deiotarus  as  something  which  he  had  "written  as  a  little 
g.ft  to  an  old  fr.end,  though  not  in  my  best  style'"     One 
letter  preserves  for  us  the  dedication  of  his  "Academy"  to 
Varro,    the   great   scholar,    and    his    contemporar^■l     There 
seems  to  have  been  no  impropriety  in  asking  an  author  for 
th.s  compliment,  since  Cicero,  in  the  same  letter  in  which  he 
sent  h,s  dedication  to  Varro,  reminded  him  of  his  promise  for 
a  like  courtesj-*,  and  received  in  reply  what  he  considered  "an 
absurd  excuse-.    It  was  in  response  to  Brutus'  own  request 
hat   Cicero  thus  honored   him  in   the  De  Oratore,   though 
the  former  did   not  allow  the  compliment  to  restrain  his 
criticism  of  the  author's  style'.     Caelius  Rufus  also  suggested 
to  Cicero  that  he  publish  some  treatise  in  honor  of  their  friend- 
Other  devices  for  personal  allusions,  such  as  introducing 
one  s  friends  as  speakers  in  a  philosophical  dialogue,  gave 


'  F-  3,  4,  1. 
'  F.  7,  19. 
■''•9,  12,  1. 
'  F.  9,  8. 


'F.  9,  8,  1. 

'Att.  16,  12,  l;ct.Acad.  1,  1,2. 

'  AU.  14,  20,  3. 

'  F.  8,  3,  3. 


71 


i 


72 


further  opportunity  to  compliment  them  publicly^.  When 
Varro  felt  slighted  because  he  had  not  been  represented  in 
Cicero's  published  work^^  Atticus  suggested  that  he  **put 
him  in  somewhere  in  the  De  Re  Puhlica''^^, 

B.   Manuscripts  Submitted  to  Friends 

The  difficulty  and  slowness  of  publication  in  ancient  times 
were  responsible  for  a  much  more  general  circulation  of  an 
author's  manuscript  than  is  customary  to-day.  He  often 
sent  it  i5rst  as  a  mark  of  courtesy  to  his  most  intimate  friend^-, 
who  passed  it  to  others^^,  or  returned  it  to  the  writer^^,  who 
wuiiid  then  give  it  to  various  friends  in  turn^^.  Such  an 
introduction  of  a  new  book  sometimes  took  place  at  a  dinner 
party,  where  it  was  read  aloud  to  a  small  company^'.  The 
iuh uisd  Atticus  made  his  home  in  Rome  a  center  for  such 
liit.nn  L'ntherings^^  at  which  this  fortunate  host  might 
present  to  iii-  un*  i  some  unpublished  writing  of  his  brilliant 
friend  Cicero,  who  in  return  expected  the  favor  of  an  especially 
LriMMi  !(  nit  !  ;n  1  ;i  <  'v  iiji  choscn  audience  to  insure  a  favor- 
aMc  itMtpti,!:  t.  r  ;  ^^  fM.-k  .  Jt  was  quite  important  for  a 
lU'U'  pr<Mlucii.'i:  ti.  inak'-  ii-  .n 'i Marance  in  public  with  the 
stamp  dI  M)iiiL'  pruii.iiR'iit  nnin'-  a]j];roval.  Vw  this  ptirpose 
a  writtT  oftrn  <p]rrtf  •!  a  I'-aii.  I  scholar  like  ^'  ''^'0,  or  such  a 
grt'at  -tatf-ina!:  ;!-  ('a>-a''  r^.  !■»:•'!  his  nianuscript^^. 


A-idt'  I'rcui  anv  th-irc  i*.  ^■^■. 
material  wa-  ^eiit  tn  rrvM^h'r  t! 
(»t    iiitimarx'^-'.      1  i^ltr    -u<  n    . 


bt'trax  al 


ot   ('(  >Iitli  if!  ;i  ■( 


J  1  t!  i  ■-' 


iiiULLL  a  iririid,  unpublished 

wMirfit  of  ]ii<  rTitioi-ni  m  r-ase 

ini-tances   it   constituted    a 

i\  one  cl-f  t ' '  iT.i.i  I  u^-  ina  wn- 


-20 


son}>t-".      \\"o  ma>    inf\ 
term-  Hirtiu-'  \\ork  (^ 

^  A'.t.  1.;.  ij,  :;,  i.j.  n.  .. 
"-■I'f.  IS.  1.;.  1. 

1-  A'.'.  \.  :>.  1. 

■'  F.  0,  7,  4.  AIL  12,  4.  -, 


l!;al   <   irtT.i  haij  n.it   rt,-c'ei\'C(i  (*n  >ik4i 


Cat... 


n   a  >  ,    h     I 


at 


gave  out  for  puhlioa- 


15  F.  1.  9.  23. 

i«.4//.  16,  3.  1. 

1"  Att.  16.  2.  6. 

18 .4«.  13.  14.  2;  Fr.  2,  15.  5. 

19  F.  12,  12.  1:  .4«.  5,  18.  1. 

20  F.  6,  5,  1;  Att.  2,  12.  3. 


^» 


73 

tion^^  Among  authors  we  notice  a  hesitancy  to  inquire  about 
writings  not  yet  made  public.  "  I  have  been  looking  forward 
a  long  time  to  your  book,"  said  Cicero  once  to  Varro,  ''but  I 
have  not  made  bold  to  ask  for  it  "^2. 

C.   Presentation  Copies 

Upon  the  appearance  of  a  new  work,  its  writer  might  call 
attention  to  it,  or  express  his  regard  for  some  friend  by  sending 
him  a  "  presentation  copy  "23.  Cicero  had  a  copy  of  his  "  Acad- 
emy" made  for  Varro  on  ''large  and  handsome  sheets  of 
parchment",  as  a  special  distinction-^  The  fortunate  owners 
of  these  first  copies  were  besieged  with  requests  to  lend  them 
or  to  share  their  first  reading-^. 

D.   Public  Recognition  of  Authors 

Cicero's  was  an  age  of  entire  freedom  in  the  realm  of  literarv 
criticism,  so  that  a  frank  expression  of  opinion  in  public 
greeted  the  publication  of  a  new  book.  Aside  from  the  open 
attacks  of  partisans,  should  the  subject  be  one  of  current 
interest,  such  as  Cicero's  eulogy  of  Cato-^  the  author  must  ex- 
pect the  criticism  of  scholarly  men  like  Varro,  whom  Cicero 
describes  by  the  Homeric  line: 

"Keen-eyed  for  faults,  to  blame  the  blameless  prone "27. 
However,  the  orator,  though  himself  sensitive  to  public  opin- 
ion,-^ intimates  no  lack  of  r-Durtesy  in  snob  ..jvn  comrrn  iit, 
which  must  be  expected  as  a  matt* a  of  coaa  ..  T*  r,aai- 
ficius,  a  !<  llnu-augma  lie  uia:.-s:  "Seizincr  upon  iht  a.p]H,.r- 
tunity  ol  juiiv  aiisence,  and  iJm'  aiTairr  i'rr*-,i*ai]  it  irivf'<  mo, 
T  nni  writinLT  ^^i'h  more  tlia-i  u-ial  hnhluess  "-^  \l  <jia.t 
\«  pos'  c-iinaiio  as  fojl.avs:  "lie  tliink-  lin' 


1'  'j<'ot.-  ( 


whioli 


21  Att.  12,  40.  1.  24  Att.  13,  25,  3. 

^Acad.  1,  1,  3.  i^Att.  12,  6,  2. 

"  F.  3,  9.  3;  cf.  Hor.  Epl.'<t.  1,  13,  2.      26  Att.  12,  4,  2. 

2'  -4//.  13.  21    2-  13,  25,  3.  ouuo^  avr^p'   rdxa  Ktv  Kal   avalriov  aiTLoccTo. 
Hor  Epist.  1,4,  1. 

28  Fr.  3,  5,  and  6,  2.  2^  r,  12    17    _> 


rr 


74 


I  plume  myself  not  worth  readinir ""'.  Of  a  contenipoi-ary 
poet,  Sallustius,  he  said  to  Quintu-:  "  If  \ou  -uccecd  in  rcadini: 
his  Empedoelea,  I  shall  regard  \ou  a-  a  hem,  yt>t  ^carcclx' 
human ""^^  C'ieero  also  expre>sed  the  fohowinir  opinion  of 
Lucretius:  "His  poems  are  characterized  h\  nian>  fhi-hc-  of 
genius,  but  are  very  technical"'-. 

rerhap>  adverse  criticism  is  more  aj)t  to  haxc  hccn  liandcd 
dovvn  to  us  than  the  favorahk-,  hut  we  know  -omethimr  at 
least  of  com|)limentary  reference  to  Cicero's  work.  Of  the 
first  hook  of  his  poems  (^aesar  said  that  he  had  nc\«r  -ccn 
anvthiuir  hetter^^  and  the  Dictator  also  ratt'(|  his  hons  ///n/.v 
so  high  as  to  wish  to  include  them  in  hi>  own  coHcition''. 
Caelius  Rufus  spoke  of  the  Dc  lu  Pnldicn  a-  in  "uni\ersil 
favor""^"'.  We  need  not  suppose,  morco\cr,  that  Atticiis 
expressed  only  in  i)rivate  his  hearty  prai>e  of  ('icero'>  literary 
success^'^,  especially  >ince  he  was  recognized  as  a  worthv  critic 
in  the  world  of  letters^' 

■'^  Att.  10.  5.  o.  ''  Fr.  2,  '•  (11).  ;^ 

'■-  Fr.  2,  9  ill),  ;>.  "Multi-  lumini!)us  iimfuii.  niiilf;n-  taincu  artii." 

-'  Fr.  -2,  15  (16:,  r>.  ^'  -1/'.  !•>.  ^5.  1. 

3«  F.  9,  10,  4.  ^'  -1^'.  Iti.  11,  -L 

"^F.  8,  1,  5. 


i 


CIIArTEll   \l 


VVBlAi^  (;atiierings 

A.   FTiQiKirE  FOK  Speakers 

The  aml)ition>  citizen  of  the  Hepnhlic  usually  sought 
fir.-t  to  attract  tlie  attention  of  his  fellowmen  }>y  a  display  of 
his  oratorical  |)ower<.  Hence  in  an  age  when  pu})lic  speaking 
formed  >nch  a  })rominent  ])art  of  the  daily  life  of  men,  con- 
vention ixave  ri<e  to  a  code  of  eticiuette  to  he  observed  bv  the 
orator  and  his  audience. 

To  the  c:)nsiils-elect  belonged  the  pri\ilege  of  leading  a  dis- 
cn^-ion  in  the  r-cnate',  while  non-o(hcial  memlxTs  took  part  in 

Order  and      ^^'^'  order  of   in\itation   from  a  magistrate'-,  who 

Privilege  in    addressed    each    one    in   such    form   as:     Die   M. 

the  Senate  Tulli''.  rrecedence  in  recognition  by  this  pre- 
siding officer  indicated  either  the  rank  of  the  senator  or  a 
s[)ecial  c(»mj)liment,  sometim(\s  both.  Oicero  was  ealk'd  to 
speak  Hr>t,  not  only  because  his  rank  of  ex-consul  warranted 
that  pri\ilege,  but  because  the  magistrate  wished  to  designate 
him  as  the  most  di>tinguished  of  the  consulars^. 

The  public  orator  must  be  prepa.red  for  free  ex])ression  of 
appro\al  or  the  ('(^ntrary  from   his  audience.   Oato's  hearers 

once    showed    their    symi)athy   with    his  attack 

Treatment  by  ,>  i      +i    •    ^  '      i-         i     -i  "^     i     4. 

,    ,.  upon  1  Omix'v  r)\'  tlieir     profound  silence   " ,  but 

Audience  '  i    .       .  x 

in(»re  commonly  we  hear  of  a|)j)robation  expressed 
by  c]ieer>'',  by  the  raising  of  hands",  by  exclamations  of  praise^, 
>uch  a>:  lUiK  (f  jirtu  durv.  lUUc  it  frsticc,   Xon  potest  indlus\ 


J  .1//.    1,  :\.  M;  /•'/.  2.   1.  2. 

-  .1/'.  1.  2.  :;,  1,  !,  (1. 
■*  Atf.  7.  1.   1. 

'  Fr.  2.  1,  ;•:. 

^  /'.    !,  .")   .    1.       ("f.   ;//   Cat.    1.  S.  2 


^  Att.  1.  14,  4. 
"  Acad.  2,  19,  0:i. 
^  Fr.  2.  1,  ;-!;  2.  A.  0. 
•'  '/.    Ornt.  ;■!,  2r),   101. 


iO 


i  b 


or  that  the  supporters  of  a  speaker  erossed  the  floor  to  stand 
or  sit  by  him^^,  or  erowded  uproariously  about  him  when  he 
ceased  talking^^  In  the  theatres,  too,  an  actor's  su(('e>s  was 
measured  bv  the  demonstrations  of  tlie  audience^-,  which 
Horace  describes  as  the  clap|)in<j:  of  hands'",  and  ^tanlpinJ4•  on 
the  floor^^ 

There  was  no  more  hesitation  in  showinir  disappro\al. 
Cicero  says  the  senators  once  lau^died  at  his  discomfiture 
durino:  a  speech^"',  and  that  they  pre\ented  the  di>cu->i(»ii  of 
certain  measures  b\'  their  irroans'*'.  The\'  finalh  siltMic((l 
Clodius,  after  he  had  harani^^ued  the  senate  for  three  hours,  by 
drowning  his  voice  in  noise'",  and  the\'  u>cd  the  >anie  inean< 
to  force  the  adjournment  of  a  meetinL:'\  At  the  trial  of  Mih) 
before  the  coinitin  frihufa,  Pom{)ey  persi>te(|  in  delixfrinu-  hi.-> 
speech  in  s[)ite  of  hostile  cries  and  per>onal  abu^e,  but  ( 'Indin^, 
who  rose  to  reply,  was  silenced  and  pu>hed  oil'  the  ms-'ra''. 
The  tone  of  Cicero's  narratix'c  here  does  not  su^^ge.>t  that  tlie-e 
experiences  were  extraordinary. 

We  cannot  wonder  at  such  expre^>ion  of  feelini;  from  the  audi- 
ence when  we  consider  the  freedom  of  spein-h  before  ('ae-ar- 
Dictatorship-^',  and  especiall\-  the  license  of  per->onal  allu>ion. 
even  in  >enatorial  debate.     The  ci/n'n  witne^^ed 


Personal 
Allusion 


more  than  one  contest  betwe(Mi  such  bitter  ene- 
mies as  ( 'icero  and  ( lodius,  when  each  held  up  the 
other  to  j)ublic  ridicule  or  contem{)t-'.  and  tried  to  outd(»  hi> 
opponent  in  repartee,  dependinicon  the  applause  of  hi>  audience 
to  decide  the  victor\--.  Cicero  sa\'s  that  in  a  debate  on  the 
state  of  the  republic  between  himself  and  Metellu^.  the  latt<'r 
''threatened  liim  at  every  third  word"-'.  The  piibli-hed 
orations  against  Pi.^o  and  \'atiniu>,  and  the  >econd  Thilippic 

.1'/.   1.   U'.,    In. 


'"  Fr.  2,  1.  3. 

''  .1^^  1,  U3.  4. 

'-  .1^^  4.  15,  ♦;. 

1'  Hor.  Ep.  2.  1:  Jo:,. 

'-•  Hor.  Ars  Port.  42^  iT. 
\'j  p    -J    •)    •> 

"'  Fr.  2.  7,  ;?. 


»'  Aff.   \.  2,    1.      (■ 

■'*  /•■/•.  2.   10.   1. 

'^  /■'/■.  2.  ;!.  2. 

-^  /•'.  '.»,   Ui,  .V 

-1  Aft.  2.  1.  :,:  2.  7,  2. 

"  .1//.  1,  It.,   M. 

-^  /•'.  ."),  2.  s. 


(t 


/  i 


well  illustrate  the  violent  personal  abuse  in  which  a  gentleman 
of  (^icero's  rank  might  indulge,  and  which,  as  Fowler  suggests, 
is  probabl\'  a  j)art  of  the  traditional  Roman  tendency  to 
defamation  and  satire"-'.  The  ancient  custom  of  levelling 
abuse  at  a  ])ul)lic  man,  from  the  superstitious  belief  that  evil 
could  thus  be  averted  from  him,  is  illustrated  in  the  soldiers' 
songs  at  triumphs'-',  and  may  have  been  partly  responsible  for 
such  freedom  of  criticism,  dcero  himself  states  that  personal 
attacks  in  public  nuist  not  be  taken  too  literjilly'-*'. 

I'ree  licence  in  the  use  of  wit  also  included  nuu'li  personal 
allusion  in  ])ublic.  Plutarch  sa\s  that  Cicero  overstepped  the 
l)uund>  of  propriety  in  order  to  be  witty  and  po])ular'-',  and 
gi\'(»s  example^  in  which  the  orator  resorted  to  rude  mention 
of  the  phy>ical  deformity  of  \'atinius'-^,  and  of  the  low  parent- 
age of  Marcu^  (iellius,  "at  whosi^  loud  voice  he  did  not 
wonder.  >ince  he  canu'  from  the  class  of  public  criers'"-'*. 
Hut  ('icero  wa-^  famous  for  facetiousness,  both  among  his 
cont(>mporarie>'",  and  later'',  and  althougli  in  his  discussion  of 
the  j)r(iper  >ubjects  for  ridicule  he  excludes  wickedness  and 
nii-ery  -',  in  practice  he  made  use  of  any  shortcoming  or  defect, 
either  moral  or  ))hysical,  which  might  serve  his  pur})ose.  lie 
at  lea^t  therefore  won  his  reputation  in  s])ite  of,  if  not  l)ecause 
of.  hi^  rude  and  bitter  ])ersonal  attacks  in  public  speaking'^ 

I^.      PoIULAlJ    DK-MoXsTRATIOXS 

In  ancient  as  in  modern  Rome  the  inhabitants  lived  much  of 

their  life  on  the  streets  and   in   j)ublic  gathierings.     There  was 

always  a  crowd  in  evidence,  and  the  crowd  was  always  ready  to 

show  it>  interest  in  what  went  on  about  it.    So  anv 


At  the  Theatre 
and  Games 


a<>embly  of  pe()})le  afforded  a  fitting  occasion  to 
di>pla\-  parti>anshi])  for  or  against  an  individual 


-'•  T-'iA\  liT,  W:  Sncid!  Lift  .  ]K  nt7. 

'•=■'' Cf.  H.  A.  .1.  Munro;  Criiiri^iu-  and  Ehicidatioii  of  Patul.,  p.  7.1. 

2«  i,r,.  Cn.L  :\.   T).  -"■'  V\\\X.  Cir.  27.  2. 

2'  Pint.  Ctr.  2."),   1  :  27,   1.  ^^  F.  1."),  21.  2   ;■!. 

28  IMllt.    dr.   '.»,    2. 

31  (,)iiiiit.  C.  ;;.  :\    \.      Marr.  Sftt.  2.  :?.  1.     rf.  Kdvcy:  n.  Jour.  vol.  'A.  pp.  3  ff. 

"-'/(  (Jrntnn  2,  eh.  •>.'/>.  ^^  riut.  Cic.  7  and  2G.      Vtrr.  2,  1,  121. 


discovered  in  Its  midst,  and  etiquette  put  no  re>traint  on  such 
popular  demonstrations.  "  It  is  ever  the  way  with  a  populace, 
especially  here,"  said  Cicero,  "to  vent  their  freedom  without 
consideration,  upon  the  very  man  who  secured  it  for  them"^'. 
The  voice  of  the  mob  made  itself  heard  in  hisses  and  catcalls 
at  the  games,  when  the  object  of  its  disfavor  appeared  among 
the  spectators'^  or  it  evinced  its  hatred  for  Pompey  l)y  ap- 
plauding the  actor  who  gave  special  significance  and  emphasis 
to  the  line:  "By  our  misery  thou  art--(ireat." ''  Such 
playing  to  the  sentiment  of  the  audience  was  not  an  un- 
usual device  on  tlie  stage,  where  the  {)hiycrs  either  adapted 
or  improvised  their  lines  with  special  n^ference  to  sonic  con- 
temporary character.  They  once  turned  a  scene  from  the 
burning  of  Priam's  palace  into  sucli  an  ciftM'tivc  appeal  and 
defence  for  Cicero  that  it  amounted  to  a  public  demonstration 
for  him  in  the  theatre^'. 

Hortensius  had  the  exceptional  good  fortune  to  reach  old 
age  without  having  been  exposed  to  jeers  at  a  public  gatluTini:; 
but  finally  he  made  himself  so  unpopular  in  the  accpiittal  of 
Messala  that  his  fir>t  subsequent  appearance  at  tlu^  theatre 
was  the  occasion  for  a  wild  storm  of  abuse  from  the  spec- 
tators'^^  During  (/icero's  consulship  the  praetor  Manu-^  Otho. 
who  had  assigned  special  seats  for  the  knights  at  the  games 
received  on  his  arrival  simultaneou>ly  hi»e>  from  the  people, 
and  applause  from  tho,>e  who  were  enjoying  tlie  benefit^  of 
his  favor'^^  Quite  as  j)lainly  did  the  multitude  ex{)re>>  it^ 
disapproval  l)y  an  ominou>  >ilenc(>  in-tead  of  the  e\{)e(tc(l 
cheers  when  a  bust  of  (\'iesar  wa-  carritMl  in  procc^-ion  at  the 
games  <>f  Apollo"\ 

But  the  Roman  mob  was  ecpiallx-  generous  in  it>  attention- 
to  a  favorite.  A  man's  reception  in  the  tlKNitre  wa-  an  index 
of   his   poptilarity*^  for   a    {)n)min(M!t    citizen    found    hi-    -eat 


^**  F.  ^.  L'.  ! 


39    {) 


It.    ' 


^'  F.  11.  12.  _>. 

3^  Att.  1.  It).  11:  F.  s,  2.  1. 

^"Att.  2,  19.  :i.  40    i;f    j.._  ij    I 

^'  prn  Srst.   120-12;^      a.    Surt.  Jul.  si. 

*'  Att.  2.  is,  1;  2,  19,  :i.      Pint.  Strt.  4.   t.      (  7.  Suet.   \\t.   \\y.  11 


i  v^ 


79 

amid  the  applause  of  those  already  assembled^-,  just  as  to-day 
m  Rome  the  strangiT  at  the  opera  may  discover  many  a  dis- 
tinguished person  in  the  audience  by  noting  the  demonstra- 
tions upon  his  entrance.  To  a  Cicero  there  was  nothing 
oilensive  in  the  ()utsj)oken  praise  of  .some  one  in  the  crowd 
who  shouted:  "There  is  the  man  who  did  so  and  so  for  his 
cit\ 


.  '  '4,^ 


The  famous  ex-consul  enjoyed,  too,  the  compliment 
innn  the  Senate,  which  asseml)led  in  crowded  session  whenever 
It  was  known  that  he  would  be  present^'.  Even  this  dignified 
b(Kly  boisterously  dem()n>trate(l  its  approval  by  applauding 
the  mere  mention  of  a  favorite's  name'\  or  the  reading  of  a 
des{)atch  from  hinr'';  and  when  the  motion  for  Marcellus' 
recall  was  j)resented.  they  ros(>  in  a  body  and  assumed  the 
attitud(>  of  .supj)liants  Ix^fore  (^aesar,  who  was  presiding^". 

On  the  .streets,  no  le<s  than  at  informal  gatherings,  the  dis- 
tniguished  Roman  received  recognition.  Throngs  which  stood 
ever  waiting  for  some  diversion'\  or  suddenly  appeared  when 
news  of  his  arrival  had  spread,  .i^reeted  him 
as  lie  })asse(l  through  the  Forum  or  elsewhere'^^. 
When  Cicero  landed  at  Brundisium  he  found  the  citizens 
:athered  in  great  numbers  to  celebrate  his  return  from  exilc'^ 
and  when  he  reached  Rome,  welcoming  throngs  covered  the 
stej)>  of  the  templt\s  and  other  buildings,  to  cheer  him  as  he 
pa.--ed\  Kven  at  the  little  town  of  Clubrae,  which  Cicero 
<'n<e  \i>ited  as  the  representative  of  its  patron,  Trebatius, 
the  inhabitant-  who  asseinl)led  to  honor  him  seemcfi  so 
numerous  as  to  sui^r^r^.^t  that  the  frogs  of  the  surrounding- 
marslies  had  joined  their  voices  to  the  l)al)})le-'-.  Once  after 
the  announcement  of  Poinpey's  recoNcry  from  a  serious  illness, 
m  all  the  citie-  of  Italy  peo})le  turned  out  in  j)r{)cessions  with 


Street  Crowds 


*'^  AH.  \.  l.-.,ii:  1.  It,,  1 
*^  F.  2.   in,  J, 
'''  /■'.  II.  •!,  :>. 

*''  At!.    \.    1.  (,, 
"  /■'.   II',   \u,   I. 
'   F.  1.  \.  ;i. 


•'  .1.'.'.  2.  is.  1 

'■'  Fr.    j,    14    ,  ].- 

".'l/^  1.  1,  •}. 
"^1//.  1, 1.1  .-,, 

"/\  7,  Is  y.. 


( 'f.  (/(  P  1^-/1.  22,  51.     dc  Domo  2S,  70, 


4*if>j 


80 


81 


festive  garlands,  and  offered  saerlfice  to  the  ,^od.>  in  thanks- 
giving''"^, ^lobs  sometimes  snrronndcd  the  home  of  a  magis- 
trate to  express  their  resentment  of  his  official  acts'**,  or 
of  a  general  to  eelebrate  an  important  victory  which  he  had 


won' 


Public  Escort 


The  popular  citizen  of  Rome  in  Cicero's  age  recei\'e(l  more 
than  cheers  from  hi>  admirers  on  the  >trcct.  Thcx'  aNo 
accompanied    him  as    fie  went  id)ont    tlic  cit\'',   con>titntinL: 

tliemselves  an  escort  to  attend  fiim  from  lii> 
home  to  tlie  Fornnr'".  to  tfie  curia  \  or  to  the 
rostra'^'^.  The  train  followed  him  if  he  cfiancc(l  to  walk  alone 
at  any  time^'",  and  returned  with  liim  to  hi^  hou^e,  e-{)eci;illy 
on  sucli  occasions  as  hi>  election  to,  ov  retirement  from  office''^, 
or  after  some  notable  s|)eecli  or  other  aehie\ement*'.  On  the 
evening  of  the  execution  of  tlie  ( 'atilinarian  conspirator^, 
Cicero's  escort  carried  inan\  torche>  and  KmI  liim  honu'  with 
great  applatise^''.  Plutarch  tcll>  us  that  on  th.c  la^t  da\  of 
Cato's  quaestorsfiip  almost  the  wliole  people  attende(l  him'  '. 
A  candidate  for  public  election  depended  on  the  impres>iv(^- 
ness  of  his  escort  to  win  votes  for  him'",  while  the  eonimeiit 
on  a  man  in  |)nblic  (lisfa\-or  was  that  "he  >lunk  into  hi^  h(»u-e 
unattended  "^^\  A  similar  >ignificance  a})peared  in  the  fa<t 
that  Cato's  escort  to  hi>  home  was  larger  than  that  of  the 
praetors  whom  he  had  just  attacked  in  a  public  speech'". 
Cicero  descril)es  the  {)ersonnel  of  such  a  following  a^  neighbor^, 
friends,  clients,  freedmen,  and  e\'en  >la\"es.  who  were  welcomed 
to  swell  the  niimber>'\  and  Martial  tell>  u^  that  a>  they  j)ro- 
ceeded  part  of  them  cleared  the  way  and  part  fi)lKjwed  after*  *. 


^^  Plut.  Po'tij).  .")7,  1   -. 

'^  Att.  -2,  L'l.  .'.. 

"  C'aes.  B.  ('.  I.  r>:]. 

^^  Att.  4,  4.  A;  cf.  Hor.  S  it.  1.  '*,  Is. 

5'  Att.  2.  1,5;  (It  Ptt.  Cnns.  «,<.  :\h. 

5s  F.  U),  V2,  _>:  <!>  S,  n.  1^.  otl. 

^'Uid  Brut.  1,  A,  2. 

6"^  Att.  2,  22,  :•;. 

«'  Fr.  2.  7  {\>),  2. 


''-■  .1.'/.   L   Hi.  .">. 

'    lM:!t.  Cic.  22;  :-. 

•■'  I'iut,  (■•!!■'  M't.  1 

6if/<   /'.  t.  ('.>,! --.  ',».  :;t 

^'  Fr.  A.  2.  2. 

'■   Plur.  Cnf.,  M;, 

«^  a'l   Pi  t.  ( '"'i^.  .■■).   17. 

f-'  Mart.  ;;,    It',  s. 


f"f.  .IV.  I.  ii;,  r, 


5  2.    I. 


I        'I 


The  honor  of  puf)lic  e-cort  is  perha])s  the  fundamental  idea 
of  the  marriage  proc(\s>ion''\ 

A  special  o{)p()rtunity  for  the  coiu'tesy  of  attendance  was 
alh)r(led  by  the  de])arture  or  return  from  a  jomaiey.  The 
popular  general  or  go\-ernor  when  he  started  for  his  i)rovince, 
pas>c(l  outside  the  gates  with  a  large  company  of  friends  and 
admirer^',  and  the  greater  the  display,  the  greater  tlie  dis- 
ti'iction'-.  Any  neglect  to  show  tliis  court esv  to  a  friend  wlio 
might  be  le;t\ing  Rome  gax'c  serious  offence"'.  When  a 
traxt'ler  returned  from  a  long  journey,  not  only  did  a  ])rocession 
assemble  out-ide  the  wall;>  to  e-cort  him  within  the  city'\ 
but  many  friend,^  went  >ome  (li>tance  to  meet  him'".  Hence 
he  made  hi^  return  to  Rome  by  tlie  route  which  might  be 
ni(wt  conxcnient  for  tho^e  who  wished  to  join  this  rctinne"'\ 
iiiid  he  >ent  nie->enger>  ahead  to  announce  his  arrival  in  time 
tor  them  to  meet  him.  Clodius  therefore  boasttnl  of  his 
niode-t\  in  entering  the  city  at  night,  miannounced  and  nn- 
attendcfl,  after  a  rapi<l  journey",  while  ( 1cero  wa>  eager  for 
lii^  son  to  return  to  Rome  with  l)rutu-,  in  order  to  share  the 
honors  (»f  the  latter'>  receptiorr\  (lovernors  or  generals 
soinetinie>  brought  back  from  their  provinces  de})utati()ns, 
o-ten-ibly  to  pre.-ent  >oine  matter  to  the  senatiN  but  realh'  to 
add  to  the  displax'  of  their  entrance  into  the  cit\'''. 

Th(>  (pie-^tioii  of  rank  entered  into  tlu^  eticpicttc  of  j)nl)lie 
e-eort.  ^  oung  men  especially  attended  an  ohler  or  more 
prominent  one^",  but  a  man  of  noble  birtli  might  not  l)e  ex- 
pectcil  to  show  this  courtesy  to  one  who  was  much  his  inferior^b 
Both  Cicero  and  Caesar  acconi])anied  friends  outside  the  city 
when   they    were  -tarting   upon   a   journey^-,   and   men   of  all 


'3-1//.  n,  A.  0. 

''  F.  10.   ]],  2;  Fr.  1,2,   1 


'^  r:itM!l.  r,i.  121  {"i. 

■1  -1//.  1.  1.-;.  2. 

"-  /•'.  \:,.  17. ;;;  Hor.  >.,•/.  i, ;;,  i:;7  IT. 

•^  Att.  s,   ].,,  1  :  \K  (1,  2;  V-',.  7,  2;  i:^,  5U,  3-5. 

7,  5.  '.\.  »o  t)f  i>,(^  rnn.<.  S,  ;•]:■!. 

81  /■'.  ■■',.  7.  4   5. 

82/.-.  :;,  1,1.  s;  Fr.  1,  ;i  1;  Suct.  Jul.  71. 


•  (>     \  fr 

'■  .1//.  2.    1,  5. 

'^  'l'l  Brut.    1,11 


'3/ 


82 


ranks  went  to  meet  (  ae.^ar  when  lie  cnKTctl  Roiiif''.  iticlndiii.:: 
Attieus^\  \'arr(),  and  CiefTo^''.  thonirli  the  la-t  -(iuuht  -onir 
reasonable  exeuse  tor  ahx'ntini:  liini-t'Il'"".  Ili^  nHiiirninir  f'»r 
Tullia  would,  he  thou.irht,  explain  al-u  lii-  absence  Iruui  the 
f)roeession  which  welcomed  F)nitn«^^^. 

Moreovt^r,  the  manner  nt"  attcn<lani c  iinplird  ;i  Lrrt-atfi-  ..r 
less  courtesy.  The  con-iil  I)(irniiiii-  \\;i-  indijnnnt  jt  ihr 
p)ublican  who  escortfil  him  nn  hurM-ba«'k^\  hijI  i  iccrv>  nien- 
tions  with  >pecia]  ]">ridf  th;ii  Hrutu-  <  amr  t,,  nir.r  Iii'n  .^n  foot^^. 

A  more  formal  an!  ♦•!;!  fMiriiM-  d<  \  >•!.>', ni'-nt  of  tlie  piililic 
escort  \\a>  tlif  tninn!  h.  ^r  itrocession  which  accompanied  a 
\"ict(:'ri<»ii^  irtTHT;!!  iiiM.ii  \\\<  rf^tnrn  nnr!  nffirinl  entry  into  the 
«itv  In  1.1  dnwn  \\<>  imperium.  This,  the  hi£:h- 
'  -t  f  (!iM[  w  In,  ii  \\]c  state  had  to  bestow^^,  was  a 
|)ri\-ih.'i:-t' awar(h'd  o!i!\  !.;,  (h-<T''e  of  the  senate^^  for  distin- 
<:ui-hrd  military  t  r  i- .  hni  ihc  compHment  ended  with 
graiitim:  the  fu-ivilr^eof  |«n-^in_;-  in  gorgeous  procession  from 
the  Ljates  of  the  cit>'  to  t  ho  ^  apiiohue,  nnd  d:d  n<*i  ai^o  pro\  i(h' 
for  the  expen-e  (if  iho  adoi-nniont^^.  If  w  t*  may  hid:'*  f'--  ai 
(  i«/ero  s  nndi-^;iui-od  o;;L;orno-~- '  and  effort-  'i  -  --^  n'-i-  a  i  i-iurnpli 
after  hi-  term  a-  l:o\ criiur  of  (  ilieiu,  u  o  ouuoiiiilo  liiai  oriHji'ietv 
allowed   t!ie   -ohoilatioTi   fif  thi-  iinblir'  hruirir''^.  nnd    inat   the 


recipient  duly  aoknow  hMiu-r. 


a  na  )i  *■(  1  lie 


III    securmir    it    for 


n  1 1  i  i 


lo  I  hn-c  w  jio  assisted 

It     !-    I'^id     Mj      Lueiiliii--'    iaiiiuUS 


trium{)}r''.  that  tho  e(Mi--i]N  i  iirni-rh,  <  -  h  d  t 
into   the   (•itv^^   aial    i!  at 
that  it  re(piired  t\\  o  sja^. .-  f. 


'n:pev  s   at  tr: 


:  O  .  i 


I  i  n  ■ 


procession  to  pass^  . 


L'-em  !  d  >  chariot 
[ice  was  so  great 

99 


87  Att.  12,  27,  3. 
"Fr.  2,  11  (13),  2. 
89  Att.  16,  7,  5. 


83  F.  9,  18,  1. 
8^  Att.  8,  9,  2. 

85  F.  9,  5,  1. 

86  Att.  1 1    Ji'    2       Cf.  Plut.  Cic.  39,  2. 

«'  F.  -'    1 "'.  1       /     1-    r,   2.     See  Smith:  triumphus. 

^-  /•.  l.y  ■-,.  J,  n  ,  1  1.  4.  9«  Att.  6,  6,  4;  F.  15,  11,  1. 

«■-  -1/'.  r,.  !t,  J:  7,  1,  a.  97  Plut,  Lucull.  37. 

'   ^^'^  -'■  !-.  ■''■    5"   t'.  <••.   t.  »8^cad.  2,  1.  3. 

9^  .1//.  e,  s,  .V  /'.  It,    !.   1.  99  Plut.  Pomp.  45,  1. 

8'  .1//.  7,  :i.  2. 


rovriJ^^lox 


In  the  foregoing  investigation  Roman  etiqueiie  ui  ihe  a-c 
of  Cicero  has  been  presented  under  th<  followimr  topir-- 

1.  Recognition  of  social  rank:  In  this  cha].t<  r  \  o  uiU-il  t]  t 
influence  of  birth,  official  position,  age,  occupation,  and  sex 
upon  the  proper  attitude  of  individuals  toward  one  auotlKT, 
as  illustrated  in  the  different  treatment  of  slaves,  Ireedmen, 
foreigners  and  officials,  and  by  the  respect  for  -id  age,  the 
social  rating  of  occupations,  and  the  po.^iLiuu  ui  uumuu. 

2.  Social  functions  and  duties:  The  T]. ma.n^  displayed  a 
certain  regard  for  dress  and  manners  as  dct-  rni  no  1  !  fa  "nnn 
their  social  life  was  characterized  by  a  generous  liu>piiaiii\  in 
accordance  with  prescribed  formalities  nf  visits,  dinners  nn.d 
calls;  special  honors  were  accorded  to  in\ididnai  o  i  k  h 
occasions  as  binhday  celebrations,  betrothal^  weddings,  and 

funerals. 

3.  Compliments  and  favors:     We  have  abundant    i'v'Ai'na' 
that  Cicero's  contemporaries  were  punctilious  in  the  use  of 


n( 


'^'.fo  language,  aiu 


Ihrl- 


11.     1 


;  1  lie  exeiaiiige  ui  euurle^^ie^  and 
favors;  we  note  al  -^  then'  fia  t  dom  in  rec}uesti!!i:  the  e  atten- 
tions. 

4.  Letter-writing:  A  study  of  Liic  correspondence  oi  f  leero 
illustrates  the  occasions  upon  which  lotters  nf  (  (Hi-rntnlatinn, 
apology,  thanks,  condolence,  and  i-ii  I'^HJu.a  aai  \\(  ro  \^aatten, 
as  well  as  llie  eoiro.t    i-rui  aial    -t  \  h-  «'|   a   jiohte  h-ttrr. 

5.  L'fi  riirii  work:  Hi''  (^tirpnaic  t.f' author-  and  their  rea<lers 
ineludrd  tiie  dt'di-'alion  and  proM  iitation  of  literaiy  work  to 
ihdi\i<lual%  and  allowed  ^^i'eat  freedom  of  per.-^onal  allm^ion 
and  •  rit  loi^ui. 

().    r..hi/''  ni'hi  rings:  ru-ff.ni    mado  definite   rea'ulations  in 


84 


rr-ard  u.  lii.^  ..r<!rr  ;hi(I  T'ri\!l.'i:e  of  speaking  in  the  senate, 
^*'i^  i'i  in.  I  h Mili.  .ftlieriiigs  there  was  great  license  in 
v\\n'c--u^]i  ,.\i  rfw  i,;ir  ;  a  speaker,  as  well  as  of  the  audience. 
i*o])Uiar  <i(  i!M  h-i?a!h  i  <!  opposition  or  favor  were  personal 
m  (liara<  I.  r  uml  frequently  took  the  form  of  jeers  or  applause 
;ii  tlic  tluairt ,    treet  mobs,  or  public  escort. 


«  #C 


r 


85 


ACKXnWT  FDGMExXT. 

The  writer's  thanks  are  due  to  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania for  the  benefits  and  the  honor  of  having  held  a  Hraduate 
Scholarship  and  a  Fellowship  in  Classics,  and  especia!!  lo 
the  Latin  Faculty  of  the  GiaJuate  School,  rruiessor  Juiin  C. 
Rolfe,  Professor  Walton  B.  McDaniel,  Assistant  Vrnfo<<nr 
Roland  G.  Kent,  Assistant  Professor  George  ]>  lladzsits, 
and  Dr.  Eugene  S.  ^IcCartney,  whose  exacting  scliolaf  Im) 
and  sympathetic  advice  have  iuriiiaiicd  liic  iii^pirata  n  anl 
assistance  which  made  this  work  possible.  T  am  in.lfhu.l 
also  to  Goucher  College  for  the  privilege  of  stnh  in  IN  ine  as 
the  holder  of  the  Alumnae  Association  Fellowship. 


I 


/ 


/I 


(' 


I 


L 


o 

o 


u 

•  fSJ 

ao  X 


»»liir 

0025984136 


